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Nath N, Chakroborty S, Vishwakarma DP, Goga G, Yadav AS, Mohan R. Recent advances in sustainable nature-based functional materials for biomedical sensor technologies. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023:10.1007/s11356-023-26135-w. [PMID: 36857000 PMCID: PMC9975880 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26135-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The lightweight, low-density, and low-cost natural polymers like cellulose, chitosan, and silk have good chemical and biodegradable properties due to their individually unique structural and functional elements. However, the mechanical properties of these polymers differ from each other. In this scenario, chitosan lacks good mechanical properties than cellulose and silk. The synthesis of nano natural polymer and reinforcement with suitable chemical compounds as the development of nanocomposite gives them promising multidisciplinary applications. Many kinds of research are already published with innovative bio-derived polymeric functional materials (Bd-PFM) applications. Most research interest is carried out on health concerns. Lots of attention has been paid to biomedical applications of Bd-PFM as biosensors. This review aims to provide a glimpse of the nanostructures Bd-PFM biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nibedita Nath
- Department of Chemistry, D.S Degree College, Laida, Sambalpur, Odisha, India
| | | | | | - Geetesh Goga
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Group of Colleges, Sardulgarh, Punjab, 151507, India
| | - Anil Singh Yadav
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IES College of Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Ravindra Mohan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IES College of Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
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2
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A disposable paper-based microfluidic electrochemical cell equipped with graphite-supported gold nanoparticles modified electrode for gallic acid determination. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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3
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Pinheiro T, Cardoso AR, Sousa CEA, Marques AC, Tavares APM, Matos AM, Cruz MT, Moreira FTC, Martins R, Fortunato E, Sales MGF. Paper-Based Biosensors for COVID-19: A Review of Innovative Tools for Controlling the Pandemic. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:29268-29290. [PMID: 34778604 PMCID: PMC8577188 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c04012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The appearance and quick spread of the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease, COVID-19, brought major societal challenges. Importantly, suitable medical diagnosis procedures and smooth clinical management of the disease are an emergent need, which must be anchored on novel diagnostic methods and devices. Novel molecular diagnostic tools relying on nucleic acid amplification testing have emerged globally and are the current gold standard in COVID-19 diagnosis. However, the need for widespread testing methodologies for fast, effective testing in multiple epidemiological scenarios remains a crucial step in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. Biosensors have previously shown the potential for cost-effective and accessible diagnostics, finding applications in settings where conventional, laboratorial techniques may not be readily employed. Paper- and cellulose-based biosensors can be particularly relevant in pandemic times, for the renewability, possibility of mass production with sustainable methodologies, and safe environmental disposal. In this review, paper-based devices and platforms targeting SARS-CoV-2 are showcased and discussed, as a means to achieve quick and low-cost PoC diagnosis, including detection methodologies for viral genomic material, viral antigen detection, and serological antibody testing. Devices targeting inflammatory markers relevant for COVID-19 are also discussed, as fast, reliable bedside diagnostic tools for patient treatment and follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomás Pinheiro
- CENIMAT
i3N, Materials Science Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa and CEMOP/UNINOVA, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - A. Rita Cardoso
- CENIMAT
i3N, Materials Science Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa and CEMOP/UNINOVA, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
- BioMark@ISEP,
School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute
of Porto, R. Dr. António
Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto 4249-015, Portugal
- CEB,
Centre of Biological Engineering, University
of Minho, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Cristina E. A. Sousa
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
- BioMark@ISEP,
School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute
of Porto, R. Dr. António
Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto 4249-015, Portugal
| | - Ana C. Marques
- CENIMAT
i3N, Materials Science Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa and CEMOP/UNINOVA, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana P. M. Tavares
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
- BioMark@ISEP,
School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute
of Porto, R. Dr. António
Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto 4249-015, Portugal
- CEB,
Centre of Biological Engineering, University
of Minho, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Ana Miguel Matos
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Pólo das Ciências
da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Chemical
Engineering Processes and Forest Products Research Center, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Maria Teresa Cruz
- Faculty
of Medicine, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Polo I, 1st Floor, Coimbra 3004-504, Portugal
| | - Felismina T. C. Moreira
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
- BioMark@ISEP,
School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute
of Porto, R. Dr. António
Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto 4249-015, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo Martins
- CENIMAT
i3N, Materials Science Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa and CEMOP/UNINOVA, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
| | - Elvira Fortunato
- CENIMAT
i3N, Materials Science Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa and CEMOP/UNINOVA, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
| | - M. Goreti F. Sales
- BioMark@UC,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University
of Coimbra R. Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
- BioMark@ISEP,
School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute
of Porto, R. Dr. António
Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto 4249-015, Portugal
- CEB,
Centre of Biological Engineering, University
of Minho, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
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Rawal G, Ghatak A. Effect of roughness on the conductivity of vacuum coated flexible paper electrodes. NANO SELECT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/nano.202100034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Rawal
- Department of Chemical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Animangsu Ghatak
- Department of Chemical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur Uttar Pradesh India
- Center for Environmental Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur Uttar Pradesh India
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5
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Wang R, Wang L, Yan J, Luan D, Wu J, Bian X. Rapid, sensitive and label-free detection of pathogenic bacteria using a bacteria-imprinted conducting polymer film-based electrochemical sensor. Talanta 2021; 226:122135. [PMID: 33676689 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The rapid and sensitive detection of pathogenic bacteria is very important for timely prevention and treatment of foodborne disease. Here, a bacteria-imprinted conductive poly(3-thiopheneacetic acid) (BICP) film-based impedimetric sensor was developed for the rapid, sensitive and label-free detection of staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The BICP film preparation was very convenient and eco-friendly, which was in situ deposited on gold electrode surface without the use of toxic organic solvents and cross-linkers. The process of imprinting and recognition were characterized by electrochemical technique and scanning electron microscope. The BICP had a novel structure without cocci-shaped cavities formed in the poly(3-thiopheneacetic acid) (PTAA) matrices. To obtain the optimal sensing performance, a set of factors affecting the imprinting and recognition were investigated. Under the optimized conditions, an extremely rapid recognition within 10 min, a very low limit of detection (LOD) of 2 CFU/mL, and wide linear range from 10 to 108 CFU/mL were achieved by the BICP film-based impedimetric sensor. The sensor also demonstrated high selectivity, and good universality and repeatability. Furthermore, the feasibility of its application has also been demonstrated in the analysis of real milk samples. This sensor offered a simple and universal method for rapid, sensitive, and selective detection of pathogenic bacteria, which could hold great potentials in fields like food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruinan Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Lingling Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Juan Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Donglei Luan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Jikui Wu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China.
| | - Xiaojun Bian
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Product on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 201306, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing & Preservation, Shanghai, 201306, China.
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7
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Marques AC, Pinheiro T, Martins GV, Cardoso AR, Martins R, Sales MG, Fortunato E. Non-enzymatic lab-on-paper devices for biosensing applications. COMPREHENSIVE ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2020.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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8
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Cardoso AR, de Sá M, Sales MGF. An impedimetric molecularly-imprinted biosensor for Interleukin-1β determination, prepared by in-situ electropolymerization on carbon screen-printed electrodes. Bioelectrochemistry 2019; 130:107287. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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9
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Rebelo AR, Liu C, Schäfer KH, Saumer M, Yang G, Liu Y. Poly(4-vinylaniline)/Polyaniline Bilayer-Functionalized Bacterial Cellulose for Flexible Electrochemical Biosensors. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:10354-10366. [PMID: 31318565 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibril network is modified with an electrically conductive polyvinylaniline/polyaniline (PVAN/PANI) bilayer for construction of potential electrochemical biosensors. This is accomplished through surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization of 4-vinylaniline, followed by in situ chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline. A uniform coverage of the BC nanofiber with 1D supramolecular PANI nanostructures is confirmed by Fourier transform infrared, X-ray diffractogram, and CHN elemental analysis. Cyclic voltammograms evince the switching in the electrochemical behavior of BC/PVAN/PANI nanocomposites from the redox peaks at 0.74 V, in the positive scan and at -0.70 V, in the reverse scan, (at 100 mV·s-1 scan rate). From these redox peaks, PANI is the emeraldine form with the maximal electrical performance recorded, showing charge-transfer resistance as low as 21 Ω and capacitance as high as 39 μF. The voltage-sensible nanocomposites can interact with neural stem cells isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the brain, through stimulation and characterization of differentiated SVZ cells into specialized and mature neurons with long neurites measuring up to 115 ± 24 μm length after 7 days of culture without visible signs of cytotoxic effects. The findings pave the path to the new effective nanobiosensor technologies for nerve regenerative medicine, which demands both electroactivity and biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Karl-H Schäfer
- Department of Applied Sciences , University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern , Zweibrücken 66482 , Germany
| | - Monika Saumer
- Department of Applied Sciences , University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern , Zweibrücken 66482 , Germany
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan 430074 , China
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Chen S, Qamar AZ, Asefifeyzabadi N, Funneman M, Taki M, Elliot L, Kinsel ME, Kinsel GR, Shamsi MH. Hand-Fabricated CNT/AgNPs Electrodes using Wax-on-Plastic Platforms for Electro-Immunosensing Application. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6131. [PMID: 30992528 PMCID: PMC6467877 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42644-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fabrication of inexpensive and flexible electronic and electrochemical sensors is in high demand for a wide range of biochemical and biomedical applications. We explore hand fabrication of CNT modified AgNPs electrodes using wax-on-plastic platforms and their application in electrochemical immunosensing. Wax patterns were printed on polyethylene terephthalate-based substrates to laydown templates for the electrodes. Hand painting was employed to fabricate a silver conductive layer using AgNPs ink applied in the hydrophilic regions of the substrate surrounded by wax. CNT was drop cast on top of the working electrodes to improve their electrochemical signal. The device layers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy. The electrochemical performance of the hand fabricated AgNPs and CNT/AgNPs electrodes was tested using cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and amperometry. The electrochemical response of CNT/AgNPs electrodes was relatively faster, higher, and more selective than unmodified AgNPs sensing electrodes. Finally, the hand-painted CNT/AgNPs electrodes were applied to detect carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) by measuring the end-product of immunoassay performed on magnetic particles. The detection limit for CEA was found to be 0.46 ng/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sensen Chen
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Ahmad Z Qamar
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Narges Asefifeyzabadi
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Madison Funneman
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Motahareh Taki
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Lee Elliot
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Mary E Kinsel
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Gary R Kinsel
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Mohtashim H Shamsi
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, 1245 Lincoln Dr, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA.
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Wu J, Wang R, Lu Y, Jia M, Yan J, Bian X. Facile Preparation of a Bacteria Imprinted Artificial Receptor for Highly Selective Bacterial Recognition and Label-Free Impedimetric Detection. Anal Chem 2018; 91:1027-1033. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Wu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Ruinan Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Yunfei Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Min Jia
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Juan Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Xiaojun Bian
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Product on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai 201306, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing & Preservation, Shanghai 201306, China
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12
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Paper-Based Sensing Device for Electrochemical Detection of Oxidative Stress Biomarker 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in Point-of-Care. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14558. [PMID: 29109407 PMCID: PMC5673927 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14878-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This work presents a cost-effective, label-free in point-of-care (POC) biosensor for the sensitive detection of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), the most abundant oxidative product of DNA, that may allow a premature assessment of cancer disease, thereby improving diagnosis, prognostics and survival rates. The device targets the direct detection of 8-OHdG by using for the first time a carbon-ink 3-electrode on a paper substrate coupled to Differential Pulse Voltammetry readings. This design was optimized by adding nanostructured carbon materials to the ink and the conducting polymer PEDOT, enhancing the electrocatalytic properties of the sensor towards 8-OHdG detection. Meanwhile, the ability of this oxidative stress biomarker to undertake an oxidation reaction enabled the development of the sensing electrochemical device without the need of chemical probes and long incubation periods. This paper-modified sensor presented high electrochemical performance on the oxidation of 8-OHdG with a wide linear range (50–1000 ng/ml) and a low detection limit (14.4 ng/ml). Thus, our results showed the development of a direct and facile sensor with good reproducibility, stability, sensitivity and more importantly, selectivity. The proposed carbon-based electrochemical sensor is a potential candidate to be miniaturized to small portable size, which make it applicable for in-situ 8-OHdG sensing in real biological samples.
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Frasco MF, Truta LAANA, Sales MGF, Moreira FTC. Imprinting Technology in Electrochemical Biomimetic Sensors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 17:E523. [PMID: 28272314 PMCID: PMC5375809 DOI: 10.3390/s17030523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biosensors are a promising tool offering the possibility of low cost and fast analytical screening in point-of-care diagnostics and for on-site detection in the field. Most biosensors in routine use ensure their selectivity/specificity by including natural receptors as biorecognition element. These materials are however too expensive and hard to obtain for every biochemical molecule of interest in environmental and clinical practice. Molecularly imprinted polymers have emerged through time as an alternative to natural antibodies in biosensors. In theory, these materials are stable and robust, presenting much higher capacity to resist to harsher conditions of pH, temperature, pressure or organic solvents. In addition, these synthetic materials are much cheaper than their natural counterparts while offering equivalent affinity and sensitivity in the molecular recognition of the target analyte. Imprinting technology and biosensors have met quite recently, relying mostly on electrochemical detection and enabling a direct reading of different analytes, while promoting significant advances in various fields of use. Thus, this review encompasses such developments and describes a general overview for building promising biomimetic materials as biorecognition elements in electrochemical sensors. It includes different molecular imprinting strategies such as the choice of polymer material, imprinting methodology and assembly on the transduction platform. Their interface with the most recent nanostructured supports acting as standard conductive materials within electrochemical biomimetic sensors is pointed out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela F Frasco
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Liliana A A N A Truta
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - M Goreti F Sales
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Felismina T C Moreira
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
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