Human Bocavirus NS1 and NS1-70 Proteins Inhibit TNF-α-Mediated Activation of NF-κB by targeting p65

Human Bocavirus in Childhood: A True Respiratory Pathogen or a "Passenger" Virus? A Comprehensive Review

Recently, human bocavirus (HBoV) has appeared as an emerging pathogen, with an increasing number of cases reported worldwide. HBoV is mainly associated with upper and lower respiratory tract infections in adults and children. However, its role as a respiratory pathogen is still not fully understood. It has been reported both as a co-infectious agent (predominantly with respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, parainfluenza viruses, and adenovirus), and as an isolated viral pathogen during respiratory tract infections. It has also been found in asymptomatic subjects. The authors review the available literature on the epidemiology of HBoV, the underlying risk factors associated with infection, the virus's transmission, and its pathogenicity as a single pathogen and in co-infections, as well as the current hypothesis about the host's immune response. An update on different HBoV detection methods is provided, including the use of quantitative single or multiplex molecular methods (screening panels) on nasopharyngeal swabs or respiratory secretions, tissue biopsies, serum tests, and metagenomic next-generations sequencing in serum and respiratory secretions. The clinical features of infection, mainly regarding the respiratory tract but also, though rarely, the gastrointestinal one, are extensively described. Furthermore, a specific focus is dedicated to severe HBoV infections requiring hospitalization, oxygen therapy, and/or intensive care in the pediatric age; rare fatal cases have also been reported. Data on tissue viral persistence, reactivation, and reinfection are evaluated. A comparison of the clinical characteristics of single infection and viral or bacterial co-infections with high or low HBoV rates is carried out to establish the real burden of HBoV disease in the pediatric population.

Occurrence of respiratory viruses among outpatients with diarrhea in Beijing, China, 2019-2020

Objectives

To investigate respiratory virus infections in diarrhea cases and identify the risk of respiratory virus transmission through feces.

Methods

Fecal specimens were collected from diarrhea cases in enteric disease clinics in Beijing, China, from 2019 to 2020. Cases that tested negative for norovirus, rotavirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, and enteric adenovirus were included in the study. Real-time RT-PCR was used to detect 16 groups of respiratory viruses, and the major viruses were genotyped. Viruses isolation and digestion of clinical specimens and nucleic acid by artificial gastric acid or artificial bile/pancreatic juice were used to evaluate the risk of respiratory virus transmission through feces.

Results

A total of 558 specimens were collected and 47 (8.42%) specimens were detected positive, 40 (13.33%, 40/300) in 2019, and 7 (2.71%, 7/258) in 2020, including 20 (3.58%) for human rhinovirus (HRV), 13 (2.32%) for Bocavirus (BoV), 6 (1.08%) for parainfluenza virus I (PIV), 4 (0.72%) for coronavirus (CoV) OC43, 3 (0.54%) for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) A, and 1 (0.18%) for both BoV and CoV OC43. Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other viruses were not detected in this study. Eight genotypes were identified in the 13 HRV specimens. BoVs 1 and 2 were identified in nine BoV specimens. HRV infectious virions were successfully isolated from 2 clinical specimens and clinical specimens of HRV, RSV, PIV, and CoV could not be detected after 4 h of digestion and their nucleic acid could not be detected after 2 h of digestion by artificial gastric acid or artificial bile/pancreatic juice.

Conclusion

There may be a risk of respiratory virus transmission from diarrhea cases, and interventions against SARS-COV-2 epidemics are also effective for other respiratory viruses.

Herpes simplex virus type 2 inhibits TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation through viral protein ICP22-mediated interaction with p65

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a prevalent human pathogen and the main cause of genital herpes. After initial infection, HSV-2 can establish lifelong latency within dorsal root ganglia by evading the innate immunity of the host. NF-κB has a crucial role in regulating cell proliferation, inflammation, apoptosis, and immune responses. It is known that inhibition of NF-κB activation by a virus could facilitate it to establish infection in the host. In the current study, we found that HSV-2 inhibited TNF-α-induced activation of NF-κB-responsive promoter in a dose-dependent manner, while UV-inactivated HSV-2 did not have such capability. We further identified the immediate early protein ICP22 of HSV-2 as a vital viral element in inhibiting the activation of NF-κB-responsive promoter. The role of ICP22 was confirmed in human cervical cell line HeLa and primary cervical fibroblasts in the context of HSV-2 infection, showing that ICP22 deficient HSV-2 largely lost the capability in suppressing NF-κB activation. HSV-2 ICP22 was further shown to suppress the activity of TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2)-, IκB kinase α (IKK α)-, IKK β-, IKK γ-, or p65-induced activation of NF-κB-responsive promoter. Mechanistically, HSV-2 ICP22 inhibited the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 by directly interacting with p65, resulting in the blockade of NF-κB activation. Furthermore, ICP22 from several alpha-herpesviruses could also inhibit NF-κB activation, suggesting the significance of ICP22 in herpesvirus immune evasion. Findings in this study highlight the importance of ICP22 in inhibiting NF-κB activation, revealing a novel mechanism by which HSV-2 evades the host antiviral responses.

Bovine coronavirus nucleocapsid suppresses IFN-β production by inhibiting RIG-I-like receptors pathway in host cells

The present study aimed to explore if bovine coronavirus nucleocapsid (BCoV N) impacts IFN-β production in the host cells and to reveal further molecular mechanism of BCoV pathogenesis. Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 T cells were transiently transfected with pMyc-BCoV-N recombinant plasmids, then infected with the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Expression levels of beta interferon (IFN-β) mRNA were detected using RT-qPCR. The results showed that BCoV N gene was 1347 bp that was consistent with the expected size. pMyc-BCoV-N recombinant protein was 1347 bp which was successfully transcribed and overexpressed in HEK 293 T cells. BCoV-N recombinant protein inhibited dose-dependently VSV-induced IFN-β production (p < 0.01). MDA5, MAVS, TBK1 and IRF3 could promote transcription levels of IFN-β mRNA. But, BCoV-N protein demoted IFN-β transcription levels induced by MDA5, MAVS, TBK1 and IRF3. Furthermore, expression levels of MDA5, MAVS, TBK1 and IRF3 mRNAs were reduced in RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) pathway. In conclusion, BCoV-N reduced IFN-β levels in RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) pathway in HEK 293 T cells which were induced by MDA5, MAVS, TBK1 and IRF3(5D). BCoV-N protein inhibited IFN-β production and activation of RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) signal pathway. Our findings demonstrated BCoV N protein is an IFN-β antagonist through inhibition of MDA5, MAVS, TBK1 and IRF3(5D) in RLRs pathway, also revealed a new mechanism of BCoV N protein to evade host innate immune response by inhibiting type I IFN production, which is beneficial to developing novel prevention strategy for BCoV disease in the animals and humans.

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Glycoprotein D Inhibits NF-κB Activation by Interacting with p65

NF-κB plays a crucial role in regulating cell proliferation, inflammation, apoptosis, and immune responses. HSV type 2 (HSV-2) is one of the most predominant sexually transmitted pathogens worldwide, and its infection increases the risk of HIV type 1 (HIV-1) acquisition and transmission. HSV-2 glycoprotein D (gD), highly homologous to HSV-1 gD, is essential for viral adhesion, fusion, entry, and spread. It is known that HSV-1 gD can bind herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) to trigger NF-κB activation and thereby facilitate viral replication at the early stage of infection. In this study, we found that purified HSV-2 gD triggered NF-κB activation at the early stage of infection, whereas ectopic expression of HSV-2 gD significantly downregulated TNF-α-induced NF-κB activity as well as TNF-α-induced IL-6 and IL-8 expression. Mechanistically, HSV-2 gD inhibited NF-κB, but not IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), activation and suppressed NF-κB activation mediated by overexpression of TNFR-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), IκB kinase α (IKKα), IKKβ, or p65. Coimmunoprecipitation and binding kinetic analyses demonstrated that HSV-2 gD directly bound to the NF-κB subunit p65 and abolished the nuclear translocation of p65 upon TNF-α stimulation. Mutational analyses further revealed that HSV-2 gD interacted with the region spanning aa 19-187 of p65. Findings in this study together demonstrate that HSV-2 gD interacts with p65 to regulate p65 subcellular localization and thereby prevents NF-κB-dependent gene expression, which may contribute to HSV-2 immune evasion and pathogenesis.

Different Subtypes of Influenza Viruses Target Different Human Proteins and Pathways Leading to Different Pathogenic Phenotypes

Different subtypes of influenza A viruses (IAVs) cause different pathogenic phenotypes after infecting human bodies. Analysis of the interactions between viral proteins and the host proteins may provide insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of the virus. In this paper, we found that the same proteins (nucleoprotein and neuraminidase) of H1N1 and H5N1 have different impacts on the NF-κB activation. By further examining the virus–host protein–protein interactions, we found that both NP and NA proteins of the H1N1 and H5N1 viruses target different host proteins. These results indicate that different subtypes of influenza viruses target different human proteins and pathways leading to different pathogenic phenotypes.

Feline bocavirus-1 associated with outbreaks of hemorrhagic enteritis in household cats: potential first evidence of a pathological role, viral tropism and natural genetic recombination

Feline bocavirus-1 (FBoV-1) was identified in cats from different households with hemorrhagic enteritis during outbreaks of an unusual clinical presentation of feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV) in Thailand. Use of polymerase chain reaction revealed the presence of the FBoV-1 DNA in several tissues, suggesting hematogenous viremia, with the viral nucleic acid, detected by in situ hybridization (ISH), was localized in intestinal cells and vascular endothelium of intestinal mucosa and serosa, and in necrosis areas primarily in various lymph nodes while FPLV-immunohistochemical analysis revealed viral localization only in cryptal cells, neurons, and limited to leukocytes in the mesenteric lymph node. Full-length coding genome analysis of the Thai FBoV-1 strains isolated from moribund cats revealed three distinct strains with a high between-strain genetic diversity, while genetic recombination in one of the three FBoV-1 strains within the NS1 gene. This is the first report identifying natural genetic recombination of the FBoV-1 and describing the pathology and viral tropism of FBoV-1 infection in cats. Although the role of FBoV-1 associated with systemic infection of these cats remained undetermined, a contributory role of enteric infection of FBoV-1 is possible. Synergistic effects of dual infection with FPLV and FBoV-1 are hypothesized, suggesting more likely severe clinical presentations.

Novel Chimeric Gene Therapy Vectors Based on Adeno-Associated Virus and Four Different Mammalian Bocaviruses

Parvoviruses are highly attractive templates for the engineering of safe, efficient, and specific gene therapy vectors, as best exemplified by adeno-associated virus (AAV). Another candidate that currently garners increasing attention is human bocavirus 1 (HBoV1). Notably, HBoV1 capsids can cross-package recombinant (r)AAV2 genomes, yielding rAAV2/HBoV1 chimeras that specifically transduce polarized human airway epithelia (pHAEs). Here, we largely expanded the repertoire of rAAV/BoV chimeras, by assembling packaging plasmids encoding the capsid genes of four additional primate bocaviruses, HBoV2–4 and GBoV (Gorilla BoV). Capsid protein expression and efficient rAAV cross-packaging were validated by immunoblotting and qPCR, respectively. Interestingly, not only HBoV1 but also HBoV4 and GBoV transduced pHAEs as well as primary human lung organoids. Flow cytometry analysis of pHAEs revealed distinct cellular specificities between the BoV isolates, with HBoV1 targeting ciliated, club, and KRT5+ basal cells, whereas HBoV4 showed a preference for KRT5+ basal cells. Surprisingly, primary human hepatocytes, skeletal muscle cells, and T cells were also highly amenable to rAAV/BoV transduction. Finally, we adapted our pipeline for AAV capsid gene shuffling to all five BoV isolates. Collectively, our chimeric rAAV/BoV vectors and bocaviral capsid library represent valuable new resources to dissect BoV biology and to breed unique gene therapy vectors.

Preconditioning strategies for improving the survival rate and paracrine ability of mesenchymal stem cells in acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common, severe emergency case in clinics, with high incidence, significant mortality and increased costs. Despite development in the understanding of its pathophysiology, the therapeutic choices are still confined to dialysis and renal transplantation. Considering their antiapoptotic, immunomodulatory, antioxidative and pro‐angiogenic effects, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may be a promising candidate for AKI management. Based on these findings, some clinical trials have been performed, but the results are contradictory (NCT00733876, NCT01602328). The low engraftment, poor survival rate, impaired paracrine ability and delayed administration of MSCs are the four main reasons for the limited clinical efficacy. Investigators have developed a series of preconditioning strategies to improve MSC survival rates and paracrine ability. In this review, by summarizing these encouraging studies, we intend to provide a comprehensive understanding of various preconditioning strategies on AKI therapy and improve the prognosis of AKI patients by regenerative medicine.

Suppression of NF-κB Activity: A Viral Immune Evasion Mechanism

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is an important transcription factor that induces the expression of antiviral genes and viral genes. NF-κB activation needs the activation of NF-κB upstream molecules, which include receptors, adaptor proteins, NF-κB (IκB) kinases (IKKs), IκBα, and NF-κB dimer p50/p65. To survive, viruses have evolved the capacity to utilize various strategies that inhibit NF-κB activity, including targeting receptors, adaptor proteins, IKKs, IκBα, and p50/p65. To inhibit NF-κB activation, viruses encode several specific NF-κB inhibitors, including NS3/4, 3C and 3C-like proteases, viral deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), phosphodegron-like (PDL) motifs, viral protein phosphatase (PPase)-binding proteins, and small hydrophobic (SH) proteins. Finally, we briefly describe the immune evasion mechanism of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) by inhibiting NF-κB activity in productive and latent infections. This paper reviews a viral mechanism of immune evasion that involves the suppression of NF-κB activation to provide new insights into and references for the control and prevention of viral diseases.

The Role of the Human Bocavirus (HBoV) in Respiratory Infections

The human bocavirus is one of the most common respiratory viruses and occurs in all age groups. Because Koch’s postulates have been fulfilled unintendedly, it is currently accepted that the virus is a real pathogen associated with upper and lower respiratory tract infections causing clinical symptoms ranging from a mild common cold to life-threatening respiratory diseases. In order to exclude a viremia, serological analysis should be included during laboratory diagnostics, as acute and chronic infections cannot be differentiated by detection of viral nucleic acids in respiratory specimen alone due to prolonged viral shedding. Besides its ability to persist, the virus appears to trigger chronic lung disease and increases clinical symptoms by causing fibrotic lung diseases. Due to the lack of an animal model, clinical trials remain the major method for studying the long-term effects of HBoV infections.

MiR-16-5p mediates a positive feedback loop in EV71-induced apoptosis and suppresses virus replication

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the predominant causative pathogen of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD). Contrary to other HFMD-causing enterovirus, EV71 can lead to severe neurological complications, even death. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that constitute the largest family of gene regulators participating in numerous biological or pathological processes. We previously reported that miR-16-5p increases with severity of HFMD by investigating the expression patterns of host miRNAs in patients with HFMD. However, the mechanisms by which EV71 induces miR-16-5p expression are not clear, and the interaction between EV71 and miR-16-5p is not yet fully understood. Here, we confirmed EV71-induced expression of miR-16-5p both in vitro and in vivo and show that upregulation of miR-16-5p by EV71 infection may occur at the posttranscriptional level. Moreover, EV71-induced caspase activation facilitates the processing of pri-miR-16-1. We also revealed that miR-16-5p can promote EV71-induced nerve cells apoptosis through activating caspase-3. In addition, we found that miR-16-5p can inhibit EV71 replication. CCNE1 and CCND1, two important cell cycle regulators, play an important role in the suppression of EV71 replication by miR-16-5p. Therefore, miR-16-5p is a positive feedback regulator in EV71-induced apoptosis and a suppressor of virus replication. These results help in understanding the interaction network between miRNA and EV71 infection and provide a potential target for the development of antiviral therapy.

Inhibition of NF-κB activity by the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus nonstructural protein 1 for innate immune evasion

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus emerged in the US is known to suppress the type I interferons response during infection. In the present study using porcine epithelial cells, we showed that PEDV inhibited both NF-κB and proinflammatory cytokines. PEDV blocked the p65 activation in infected cells and suppressed the PRD II-mediated NF-κB activity. Of the total of 22 viral proteins, nine proteins were identified as NF-κB antagonists, and nsp1 was the most potent suppressor of proinflammatory cytokines. Nsp1 interfered the phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα, and thus blocked the p65 activation. Mutational studies demonstrated the essential requirements of the conserved residues of nsp1 for NF-κB suppression. Our study showed that PEDV inhibited NF-κB activity and nsp1 was a potent NF-κB antagonist for suppression of both IFN and early production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

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PEDV inhibits type I IFNs and NF-κB-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokines.

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PEDV blocks p65 nuclear translocation in virus-infected cells.

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Among 22 viral proteins, nsp1, nsp3, nsp5, nsp7, nsp14, nsp15, nsp16, ORF3, and E are NF-κB antagonists.

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Nsp1 suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines and p65 activation by blocking IκBα phosphorylation.

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The conserved residues of nsp1 are crucial for NF-κB suppression.

The role of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) proteins in the modulation of NF-κB pathway during IHNV infection

Viral infections frequently lead to the activation of host innate immune signaling pathways involved in the defense against invading pathogens. To ensure their survival, viruses have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to overcome the host immune responses. The present study demonstrated for the first time that infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) activated NF-κB pathway in fish cells. We further identified that the IHNV L protein could activate the NF-κB signaling pathway and that IHNV NV functioned as an inhibitor of NF-κB activation. Further results demonstrated that the NV protein blocked the degradation of the inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα) and suppressed the SeV-induced NF-κB nuclear translocation. In conclusion, our study explored the functions of different IHNV proteins on NF-κB activation, and revealed a potential mechanism by which IHNV evades innate immune responses.

TNF-α promotes survival and migration of MSCs under oxidative stress via NF-κB pathway to attenuate intimal hyperplasia in vein grafts

The oxidative stress caused by endothelial injury is involved in intimal hyperplasia (IH) in vein grafts. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can home to injured intima and promote endothelial repair. However, MSC apoptosis is increased accompanied by decreased functional activity under oxidative stress. Thus, we investigate whether tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) can promote the survival and activity of MSCs under oxidative stress to reduce IH more effectively, and establish what role the NF‐κB pathway plays in this. In this study, we preconditioned MSCs with TNF‐α (^{TNF‐α‐PC}MSCs) for 24 hrs and measured the activation of the IKK/NF‐κB pathway. EdU and transwell assays were performed to assess proliferation and migration of ^{TNF‐α‐PC}MSCs. Apoptosis and migration of ^{TNF‐α‐PC}MSCs were evaluated in conditions of oxidative stress by analysis of the expression of Bcl‐2 and CXCR4 proteins. ^{TNF‐α‐PC}MSCs were transplanted into a vein graft model, so that cell homing could be tracked, and endothelial apoptosis and IH of vein grafts were measured. The results demonstrated that TNF‐α promotes proliferation and migration of MSCs. Furthermore, survival and migration of ^{TNF‐α‐PC}MSCs under oxidative stress were both enhanced. A greater number of MSCs migrated to the intima of vein grafts after preconditioning with TNF‐α, and the formation of neointima was significantly reduced. These effects could be partially abolished by IKK XII (NF‐κB inhibitor). All these results indicate that preconditioning with TNF‐α can promote survival and migration of MSCs under oxidative stress via the NF‐κB pathway and thus attenuate IH of vein grafts.

Viral-bacterial interactions in the respiratory tract

In the respiratory tract, viruses and bacteria can interact on multiple levels. It is well known that respiratory viruses, particularly influenza viruses, increase the susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections. Numerous mechanisms, including compromised physical and immunological barriers, and changes in the microenvironment have hereby been shown to contribute to the development of secondary bacterial infections. In contrast, our understanding of how bacteria shape a response to subsequent viral infection is still limited. There is emerging evidence that persistent infection (or colonization) of the lower respiratory tract (LRT) with potential pathogenic bacteria, as observed in diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cystic fibrosis, modulates subsequent viral infections by increasing viral entry receptors and modulating the inflammatory response. Moreover, recent studies suggest that even healthy lungs are not, as had long been assumed, sterile. The composition of the lung microbiome may thus modulate responses to viral infections. Here we summarize the current knowledge on the co-pathogenesis between viruses and bacteria in LRT infections.