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Kimura T, Sato H, Kano M, Tatsumi L, Tomita T. Novel aspects of the phosphorylation and structure of pathological tau: implications for tauopathy biomarkers. FEBS Open Bio 2024; 14:181-193. [PMID: 37391389 PMCID: PMC10839341 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The deposition of highly phosphorylated and aggregated tau is a characteristic of tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease. It has long been known that different isoforms of tau are aggregated in different cell types and brain regions in each tauopathy. Recent advances in analytical techniques revealed the details of the biochemical and structural biological differences of tau specific to each tauopathy. In this review, we explain recent advances in the analysis of post-translational modifications of tau, particularly phosphorylation, brought about by the development of mass-spectrometry and Phos-tag technology. We then discuss the structure of tau filaments in each tauopathy revealed by the advent of cryo-EM. Finally, we describe the progress in biofluid and imaging biomarkers for tauopathy. This review summarizes current efforts to elucidate the characteristics of pathological tau and the landscape of the use of tau as a biomarker to diagnose and determine the pathological stage of tauopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeko Kimura
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of TokyoJapan
| | - Haruaki Sato
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of TokyoJapan
| | - Maria Kano
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of TokyoJapan
| | - Lisa Tatsumi
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of TokyoJapan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of TokyoJapan
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2
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Sun K, Patel T, Kang SG, Yarahmady A, Srinivasan M, Julien O, Heras J, Mok SA. Disease-Associated Mutations in Tau Encode for Changes in Aggregate Structure Conformation. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:4282-4297. [PMID: 38054595 PMCID: PMC10741665 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of tau fibrils is associated with neurodegenerative diseases, which are collectively termed tauopathies. Cryo-EM studies have shown that the packed fibril core of tau adopts distinct structures in different tauopathies, such as Alzheimer's disease, corticobasal degeneration, and progressive supranuclear palsy. A subset of tauopathies are linked to missense mutations in the tau protein, but it is not clear whether these mutations impact the structure of tau fibrils. To answer this question, we developed a high-throughput protein purification platform and purified a panel of 37 tau variants using the full-length 0N4R splice isoform. Each of these variants was used to create fibrils in vitro, and their relative structures were studied using a high-throughput protease sensitivity platform. We find that a subset of the disease-associated mutations form fibrils that resemble wild-type tau, while others are strikingly different. The impact of mutations on tau structure was not clearly associated with either the location of the mutation or the relative kinetics of fibril assembly, suggesting that tau mutations alter the packed core structures through a complex molecular mechanism. Together, these studies show that single-point mutations can impact the assembly of tau into fibrils, providing insight into its association with pathology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry
T. Sun
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Tark Patel
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Sang-Gyun Kang
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Allan Yarahmady
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Mahalashmi Srinivasan
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Olivier Julien
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
| | - Jónathan Heras
- Department
of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, University
of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain 26004
| | - Sue-Ann Mok
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
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3
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Suzuki K, Kubota Y, Kaneko K, Kamata CC, Furuyama K. CLPX regulates mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation in liver cells. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105210. [PMID: 37660922 PMCID: PMC10556790 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation (β-oxidation) is an essential metabolic process for energy production in eukaryotic cells, but the regulatory mechanisms of this pathway are largely unknown. In the present study, we found that several enzymes involved in β-oxidation are associated with CLPX, the AAA+ unfoldase that is a component of the mitochondrial matrix protease ClpXP. The suppression of CLPX expression increased β-oxidation activity in the HepG2 cell line and in primary human hepatocytes without glucagon treatment. However, the protein levels of enzymes involved in β-oxidation did not significantly increase in CLPX-deleted HepG2 cells (CLPX-KO cells). Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed that the protein level in the immunoprecipitates of each antibody changed after the treatment of WT cells with glucagon, and a part of these changes was also observed in the comparison of WT and CLPX-KO cells without glucagon treatment. Although the exogenous expression of WT or ATP-hydrolysis mutant CLPX suppressed β-oxidation activity in CLPX-KO cells, glucagon treatment induced β-oxidation activity only in CLPX-KO cells expressing WT CLPX. These results suggest that the dissociation of CLPX from its target proteins is essential for the induction of β-oxidation in HepG2 cells. Moreover, specific phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase and a decrease in the expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 were observed in CLPX-KO cells, suggesting that CLPX might participate in the regulation of the cytosolic signaling pathway for β-oxidation. The mechanism for AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation remains elusive; however, our results uncovered the hitherto unknown role of CLPX in mitochondrial β-oxidation in human liver cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate, Japan
| | - Yoshiko Kubota
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate, Japan
| | - Kiriko Kaneko
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate, Japan
| | | | - Kazumichi Furuyama
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate, Japan.
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Lee HJ, Hoe HS. Inhibition of CDK4/6 regulates AD pathology, neuroinflammation and cognitive function through DYRK1A/STAT3 signaling. Pharmacol Res 2023; 190:106725. [PMID: 36907286 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
Repurposing approved drugs is an emerging therapeutic development strategy for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The CDK4/6 inhibitor abemaciclib mesylate is an FDA-approved drug for breast cancer treatment. However, whether abemaciclib mesylate affects Aβ/tau pathology, neuroinflammation, and Aβ/LPS-mediated cognitive impairment is unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of abemaciclib mesylate on cognitive function and Aβ/tau pathology and found that abemaciclib mesylate improved spatial and recognition memory by regulating the dendritic spine number and neuroinflammatory responses in 5xFAD mice, an Aβ-overexpressing model of AD. Abemaciclib mesylate also inhibited Aβ accumulation by enhancing the activity and protein levels of the Aβ-degrading enzyme neprilysin and the α-secretase ADAM17 and decreasing the protein level of the γ-secretase PS-1 in young and aged 5xFAD mice. Importantly, abemaciclib mesylate suppressed tau phosphorylation in 5xFAD mice and tau-overexpressing PS19 mice by reducing DYRK1A and/or p-GSK3β levels. In wild-type (WT) mice injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), abemaciclib mesylate rescued spatial and recognition memory and restored dendritic spine number. In addition, abemaciclib mesylate downregulated LPS-induced microglial/astrocytic activation and proinflammatory cytokine levels in WT mice. In BV2 microglial cells and primary astrocytes, abemaciclib mesylate suppressed LPS-mediated proinflammatory cytokine levels by downregulating AKT/STAT3 signaling. Taken together, our results support repurposing the anticancer drug, CDK4/6 inhibitor abemaciclib mesylate as a multitarget therapeutic for AD pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ju Lee
- Department of Neural Development and Disease, Korea Brain Research Institute (KBRI), 61, Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, the Republic of Korea
| | - Hyang-Sook Hoe
- Department of Neural Development and Disease, Korea Brain Research Institute (KBRI), 61, Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, the Republic of Korea; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science & Technology, Daegu 42988, the Republic of Korea.
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Zhang Y, He X, Zou J, Yang J, Ma A, Tan M. Phosphorylation mutation impairs the promoting effect of spastin on neurite outgrowth without affecting its microtubule severing ability. Eur J Histochem 2023; 67. [PMID: 36632786 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2023.3594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Spastin, a microtubule-severing enzyme, is known to be important for neurite outgrowth. However, the role of spastin post-translational modification, particularly its phosphorylation regulation in neuronal outgrowth, remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of eliminating spastin phosphorylation on the neurite outgrowth of rat hippocampal neurons. To accomplish this, we constructed a spastin mutant with eleven potential phosphorylation sites mutated to alanine. The phosphorylation levels of the wildtype spastin (WT) and the mutant (11A) were then detected using Phos-tag SDS-PAGE. The spastin constructs were transfected into COS7 cells for the observation of microtubule severing, and into rat hippocampal neurons for the detection of neuronal outgrowth. The results showed that compared to the spastin WT, the phosphorylation levels were significantly reduced in the spastin 11A mutant. The spastin mutant 11A impaired its ability to promote neurite length, branching, and complexity in hippocampal neurons, but did not affect its ability to sever microtubules in COS7 cells. In conclusion, the data suggest that mutations at multiple phosphorylation sites of spastin do not impair its microtubule cleavage ability in COS7 cells, but reduce its ability to promote neurite outgrowth in rat hippocampal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunlong Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou.
| | - Xin He
- Clinical Laboratory Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou.
| | - Jianyu Zou
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou.
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou.
| | | | - Minghui Tan
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou.
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Chen D, Lan G, Li R, Mei Y, Shui X, Gu X, Wang L, Zhang T, Gan CL, Xia Y, Hu L, Tian Y, Zhang M, Lee TH. Melatonin ameliorates tau-related pathology via the miR-504-3p and CDK5 axis in Alzheimer’s disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:27. [PMID: 35527277 PMCID: PMC9082841 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00302-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Intracellular accumulation of the microtubule-associated protein tau and its hyperphosphorylated forms is a key neuropathological feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Melatonin has been shown to prevent tau hyperphosphorylation in cellular and animal models. However, the molecular mechanisms by which melatonin attenuates tau hyperphosphorylation and tau-related pathologies are not fully understood. Methods Immunofluorescence, immunoblotting analysis and thioflavin-S staining were employed to examine the effects of early and late treatment of melatonin on tau-related pathology in hTau mice, in which nonmutated human tau is overexpressed on a mouse tau knockout background. High-throughput microRNA (miRNA) sequencing, quantitative RT-PCR, luciferase reporter assay and immunoblotting analysis were performed to determine the molecular mechanism. Results We found that both early and late treatment of melatonin efficiently decreased the phosphorylation of soluble and insoluble tau at sites related to AD. Moreover, melatonin significantly reduced the number of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and attenuated neuronal loss in the cortex and hippocampus. Furthermore, using miRNA microarray analysis, we found that miR-504-3p expression was upregulated by melatonin in the hTau mice. The administration of miR-504-3p mimics dramatically decreased tau phosphorylation by targeting p39, an activator of the well-known tau kinase cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5). Compared with miR-504-3p mimics alone, co-treatment with miR-504-3p mimics and p39 failed to reduce tau hyperphosphorylation. Conclusions Our results suggest for the first time that melatonin alleviates tau-related pathologies through upregulation of miR-504-3p expression by targeting the p39/CDK5 axis and provide novel insights into AD treatment strategies. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40035-022-00302-4.
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In vivo analysis of the phosphorylation of tau and the tau protein kinases Cdk5-p35 and GSK3β by using Phos-tag SDS–PAGE. J Proteomics 2022; 262:104591. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2022.104591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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Hirano H, Shirakawa J. Recent developments in Phos-tag electrophoresis for the analysis of phosphoproteins in proteomics. Expert Rev Proteomics 2022; 19:103-114. [PMID: 35285370 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2022.2052850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Phosphate-binding tag (Phos-tag) sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is an important development capable of analyzing the phosphorylation state of proteins. Conventionally, proteins were separated via SDS-PAGE and Phos-tag SDS-PAGE that use different gels to identify phosphorylated proteins. However, it was often difficult to compare the electrophoretic mobility of the proteins in the different gels used. The recently developed Phos-tag diagonal electrophoresis has been able to solve this problem. It can indicate the SDS-PAGE and Phos-tag SDS-PAGE patterns on a single gel; therefore, phosphorylated proteins can be distinguished easily from non-phosphorylated proteins. AREAS COVERED This review assesses the importance of Phos-tag electrophoresis, which enables the analysis of protein phosphorylation states, in the field of proteomics. Additionally, this review describes the significance and actual experimental technique of Phos-tag diagonal electrophoresis, which was recently developed to overcome the drawbacks of Phos-tag SDS-PAGE. EXPERT OPINION Although shotgun analysis of proteins allows detecting many phosphorylation sites, it is challenging to clarify the differences in the phosphorylation states of protein molecules using this technique. Therefore, Phos-tag SDS-PAGE is frequently used to determine the phosphorylation state of proteins. This technique has become more powerful with the recent development of Phos-tag diagonal electrophoresis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisashi Hirano
- Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Jun Shirakawa
- Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
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Samimi N, Sharma G, Kimura T, Matsubara T, Huo A, Chiba K, Saito Y, Murayama S, Akatsu H, Hashizume Y, Hasegawa M, Farjam M, Shahpasand K, Ando K, Hisanaga SI. Distinct phosphorylation profiles of tau in brains of patients with different tauopathies. Neurobiol Aging 2021; 108:72-79. [PMID: 34536819 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Tauopathies are neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by pathological accumulation of tau protein. Tau is hyperphosphorylated in the brain of tauopathy patients, and this phosphorylation is proposed to play a role in disease development. However, it has been unclear whether phosphorylation is different among different tauopathies. Here, we investigated the phosphorylation states of tau in several tauopathies, including corticobasal degeneration, Pick's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), argyrophilic grain dementia (AGD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Analysis of tau phosphorylation profiles using Phos-tag SDS-PAGE revealed distinct phosphorylation of tau in different tauopathies, whereas similar phosphorylation patterns were found within the same tauopathy. For PSP, we found 2 distinct phosphorylation patterns suggesting that PSP may consist of 2 different related diseases. Immunoblotting with anti-phospho-specific antibodies showed different site-specific phosphorylation in the temporal lobes of patients with different tauopathies. AD brains showed increased phosphorylation at Ser202, Thr231 and Ser235, Pick's disease brains showed increased phospho-Ser202, and AGD brains showed increased phospho-Ser396. The cis conformation of the peptide bond between phospho-Thr231 and Pro232 (cis ptau) was increased in AD and AGD. These results indicate that while tau is differently phosphorylated in tauopathies, a similar pathological mechanism may occur in AGD and AD patients. The present data provide useful information regarding tau pathology and diagnosis of tauopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nastaran Samimi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran; Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Govinda Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taeko Kimura
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoyasu Matsubara
- Department of Neuropathology (the Brain Bank for Aging Research), Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Anni Huo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kurumi Chiba
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuko Saito
- Department of Neuropathology (the Brain Bank for Aging Research), Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeo Murayama
- Department of Neuropathology (the Brain Bank for Aging Research), Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Akatsu
- Department of Community-based Medical Education, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medicine, Mizuho, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan; Institute of Neuropathology, Fukushimura Hospital, Toyohashi, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yoshio Hashizume
- Institute of Neuropathology, Fukushimura Hospital, Toyohashi, Aichi, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Department of Dementia and Higher Brain Function, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mojtaba Farjam
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Koorosh Shahpasand
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kanae Ando
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Hisanaga
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Dementia and Higher Brain Function, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan.
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Chung S, Yang J, Kim HJ, Hwang EM, Lee W, Suh K, Choi H, Mook-Jung I. Plexin-A4 mediates amyloid-β-induced tau pathology in Alzheimer's disease animal model. Prog Neurobiol 2021; 203:102075. [PMID: 34004220 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau are major pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Several studies have revealed that Aβ accelerates pathological tau transition and spreading during the disease progression, and that reducing tau can mitigate pathological features of AD. However, molecular links between Aβ and tau pathologies remain elusive. Here, we suggest a novel role for the plexin-A4 as an Aβ receptor that induces aggregated tau pathology. Plexin-A4, previously known as proteins involved in regulating axon guidance and synaptic plasticity, can bound to Aβ with co-receptor, neuropilin-2. Genetic downregulation of plexin-A4 in neurons was sufficient to prevent Aβ-induced activation of CDK5 and reduce tau hyperphosphorylation and aggregation, even in the presence of Aβ. In an AD mouse model that manifests both Aβ and tau pathologies, genetic downregulation of plexin-A4 in the hippocampus reduced tau pathology and ameliorated spatial memory impairment. Collectively, these results indicate that the plexin-A4 is capable of mediating Aβ-induced tau pathology in AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunwoo Chung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
| | - Jinhee Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; Biorchestra Co., Ltd., Techno 4-ro 17, Daejeon 34013, South Korea.
| | - Haeng Jun Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
| | - Eun Mi Hwang
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, South Korea.
| | - Wonik Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
| | - Kyujin Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
| | - Hayoung Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
| | - Inhee Mook-Jung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, South Korea.
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Morris SL, Tsai MY, Aloe S, Bechberger K, König S, Morfini G, Brady ST. Defined Tau Phosphospecies Differentially Inhibit Fast Axonal Transport Through Activation of Two Independent Signaling Pathways. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 13:610037. [PMID: 33568975 PMCID: PMC7868336 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.610037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tau protein is subject to phosphorylation by multiple kinases at more than 80 different sites. Some of these sites are associated with tau pathology and neurodegeneration, but other sites are modified in normal tau as well as in pathological tau. Although phosphorylation of tau at residues in the microtubule-binding repeats is thought to reduce tau association with microtubules, the functional consequences of other sites are poorly understood. The AT8 antibody recognizes a complex phosphoepitope site on tau that is detectable in a healthy brain but significantly increased in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Previous studies showed that phosphorylation of tau at the AT8 site leads to exposure of an N-terminal sequence that promotes activation of a protein phosphatase 1 (PP1)/glycogen synthase 3 (GSK3) signaling pathway, which inhibits kinesin-1-based anterograde fast axonal transport (FAT). This finding suggests that phosphorylation may control tau conformation and function. However, the AT8 includes three distinct phosphorylated amino acids that may be differentially phosphorylated in normal and disease conditions. To evaluate the effects of specific phosphorylation sites in the AT8 epitope, recombinant, pseudophosphorylated tau proteins were perfused into the isolated squid axoplasm preparation to determine their effects on axonal signaling pathways and FAT. Results from these studies suggest a mechanism where specific phosphorylation events differentially impact tau conformation, promoting activation of independent signaling pathways that differentially affect FAT. Implications of findings here to our understanding of tau function in health and disease conditions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. Morris
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | - Ming-Ying Tsai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Sarah Aloe
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | | | - Svenja König
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | - Gerardo Morfini
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | - Scott T. Brady
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
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12
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Wang Y, Sheng H, Zhao J, Guo L, Liu J, Xu J, Liu Q, Huang J, Jiang R, Gan S, Qiu G, Lu W, Xu S, Zhu S. Changes in the prefrontal cortex after the hippocampus was injected with Aβ 25-35 via the P35/P25-CDK5-Tau hyperphosphorylation signaling pathway. Neurosci Lett 2021; 741:135453. [PMID: 33186609 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the common neurodegenerative illnesses in aging populations around the world. Recently, psychiatric symptoms are becoming increasingly important in recognizing the manifestations of AD in addition to cognitive impairment. Some studies suggest that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is closely related to apathy/depression, and a network may exist between the CA1 of hippocampus and PFC. However, whether the injection of Aβ2535 into hippocampi may result in PFC abnormalities in AD model rats is unclear. In this study, it was investigated the changes in the PFCs after the hippocampal injection via the P35/P25 - Cyclin-dependent kinase5 (CDK5) - Tau hyperphosphorylation signaling pathway. Our results demonstrated that rats injected with Aβ25-35 showed decreased learning and memory ability, and increased depression-like behaviors compared with uninjected controls and saline-injected shams. P35/P25, CDK5, Tau[pS199], and Tau[pS202] are significantly elevated in the PFCs and hippocampi after Aβ25-35 was injected into the hippocampi. Furthermore, P35/P25-CDK5 complexes were detected in vivo by immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation. Therefore, the relative expression of proteins associated with the P35/P25-CDK5 pathway showed the same changes in the hippocampi and PFCs after Aβ25-35 injection. These findings demonstrate a potential mechanism for prefrontal-mediated cognitive impairment and the psychiatric symptoms of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiying Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China; Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China; Laboratory of Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Huajun Sheng
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Xi'an Hospital of TCM, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ling Guo
- Department of Medical Technology and Health Management, Chongqing Vocational College of Nursing, Chongqing, China
| | - Jianing Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, The College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Juan Huang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rong Jiang
- Laboratory of Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shengwei Gan
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guoping Qiu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weitian Lu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shiye Xu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shujuan Zhu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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13
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Saito T, Oba T, Shimizu S, Asada A, Iijima KM, Ando K. Cdk5 increases MARK4 activity and augments pathological tau accumulation and toxicity through tau phosphorylation at Ser262. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 28:3062-3071. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau is associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease. Microtubule affinity-regulating kinases (MARK) 1–4 and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) are tau kinases under physiological and pathological conditions. However, their functional relationship remains elusive. Here, we report a novel mechanism by which Cdk5 activates MARK4 and augments tau phosphorylation, accumulation and toxicity. MARK4 is highly phosphorylated at multiple sites in the brain and in cultured neurons, and inhibition of Cdk5 activity reduces phosphorylation levels of MARK4. MARK4 is known to be activated by phosphorylation at its activation loop by liver kinase B1 (LKB1). In contrast, Cdk5 increased phosphorylation of MARK4 in the spacer domain, but not in the activation loop, and enhanced its kinase activity, suggesting a novel mechanism by which Cdk5 regulates MARK4 activity. We also demonstrated that co-expression of Cdk5 and MARK4 in mammalian cultured cells significantly increased the levels of tau phosphorylation at both Cdk5 target sites (SP/TP sites) and MARK target sites (Ser262), as well as the levels of total tau. Furthermore, using a Drosophila model of tau toxicity, we demonstrated that Cdk5 promoted tau accumulation and tau-induced neurodegeneration via increasing tau phosphorylation levels at Ser262 by a fly ortholog of MARK, Par-1. This study suggests a novel mechanism by which Cdk5 and MARK4 synergistically increase tau phosphorylation and accumulation, consequently promoting neurodegeneration in disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Saito
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiya Oba
- Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sawako Shimizu
- Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akiko Asada
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichi M Iijima
- Department of Alzheimer’s Disease Research, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan
- Department of Experimental Gerontology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Kanae Ando
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
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14
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Sharma G, Huo A, Kimura T, Shiozawa S, Kobayashi R, Sahara N, Ishibashi M, Ishigaki S, Saito T, Ando K, Murayama S, Hasegawa M, Sobue G, Okano H, Hisanaga SI. Tau isoform expression and phosphorylation in marmoset brains. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:11433-11444. [PMID: 31171723 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.008415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tau is a microtubule-associated protein expressed in neuronal axons. Hyperphosphorylated tau is a major component of neurofibrillary tangles, a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates are also found in many neurodegenerative diseases, collectively referred to as "tauopathies," and tau mutations are associated with familial frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Previous studies have generated transgenic mice with mutant tau as tauopathy models, but nonhuman primates, which are more similar to humans, may be a better model to study tauopathies. For example, the common marmoset is poised as a nonhuman primate model for investigating the etiology of age-related neurodegenerative diseases. However, no biochemical studies of tau have been conducted in marmoset brains. Here, we investigated several important aspects of tau, including expression of different tau isoforms and its phosphorylation status, in the marmoset brain. We found that marmoset tau does not possess the "primate-unique motif" in its N-terminal domain. We also discovered that the tau isoform expression pattern in marmosets is more similar to that of mice than that of humans, with adult marmoset brains expressing only four-repeat tau isoforms as in adult mice but unlike in adult human brains. Of note, tau in brains of marmoset newborns was phosphorylated at several sites associated with AD pathology. However, in adult marmoset brains, much of this phosphorylation was lost, except for Ser-202 and Ser-404 phosphorylation. These results reveal key features of tau expression and phosphorylation in the marmoset brain, a potentially useful nonhuman primate model of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govinda Sharma
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Anni Huo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Taeko Kimura
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan.,Department of Functional Brain Imaging Research, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage, Chiba, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Seiji Shiozawa
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Reona Kobayashi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.,Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Naruhiko Sahara
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging Research, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage, Chiba, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Minaka Ishibashi
- Research Division of Dementia and Neurodegenerative Disease, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Aichi 466-8550, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Ishigaki
- Research Division of Dementia and Neurodegenerative Disease, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Aichi 466-8550, Japan
| | - Taro Saito
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Kanae Ando
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Shigeo Murayama
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo 173-0015, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Gen Sobue
- Research Division of Dementia and Neurodegenerative Disease, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Aichi 466-8550, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.,Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Hisanaga
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan .,Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
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15
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Kimura T, Sharma G, Ishiguro K, Hisanaga SI. Phospho-Tau Bar Code: Analysis of Phosphoisotypes of Tau and Its Application to Tauopathy. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:44. [PMID: 29467609 PMCID: PMC5808175 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tau is a microtubule-associated protein which regulates the assembly and stability of microtubules in the axons of neurons. Tau is also a major component of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), a pathological hallmark in Alzheimer's disease (AD). A characteristic of AD tau is hyperphosphorylation with more than 40 phosphorylation sites. Aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau are also found in other neurodegenerative diseases which are collectively called tauopathies. Although a large number of studies have been performed on the phosphorylation of AD tau, it is not known if there is disease-specific phosphorylation among tauopathies. This is due to the lack of a proper method for analyzing tau phosphorylation in vivo. Most previous phosphorylation studies were conducted using a range of phosphorylation site-specific antibodies. These studies describe relative changes of different phosphorylation sites, however, it is hard to estimate total, absolute and collective changes in phosphorylation. To overcome these problems, we have recently applied the Phos-Tag technique to the analysis of tau phosphorylation in vitro and in vivo. This method separates tau into many bands during SDS-PAGE depending on its phosphorylation states, creating a bar code appearance. We propose calling this banding pattern of tau the "phospho-tau bar code." In this review article, we describe what is newly discovered regarding tau phosphorylation through the use of the Phos-Tag. We would like to propose its use for the postmortem diagnosis of tauopathy which is presently done by immunostaining diseased brains with anti-phospho-antibodies. While Phos-tag SDS-PAGE, like other biochemical assays, will lose morphological information, it could provide other types of valuable information such as disease-specific phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeko Kimura
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Govinda Sharma
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Koichi Ishiguro
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Juntendo University, Bunkyo, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Hisanaga
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, Japan
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16
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Taoka M, Fujii M, Tsuchiya M, Uekita T, Ichimura T. A Sensitive Microbead-Based Organic Media-Assisted Method for Proteomics Sample Preparation from Dilute and Denaturing Solutions. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:42661-42667. [PMID: 29161009 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b16095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We developed a robust and sensitive sample preparation method for proteomics termed microbead-based and organic-media-assisted proteolysis strategy (BOPs). BOPs combines two advantages of current techniques, (1) unbiased binding of reversed-phase polymeric microbeads to any type of protein and (2) enhanced trypsin digestion efficiency in CH3CN-aqueous solvent systems, into a single-tube workflow. Compared with conventional techniques, this method effectively concentrates proteins and improves proteolytic digestion, and can be used with submicromolar protein samples in dilute or denaturing solutions, such as 70% formic acid, 8 M urea, or 7 M guanidine hydrochloride without any sample pretreatment. Proteome analysis of single Caenorhabditis elegans organisms demonstrates that BOPs has the sensitivity, reproducibility, and unbiasedness required to characterize worm proteins at a single organism level. We also show that, by simply incorporating an acetone washing step for detergent removal, BOPs is applicable to low concentration samples contaminated with a variety of detergents, including sodium dodecyl sulfate, with negligible protein loss. Moreover, the utility of this modification has also been demonstrated through proteomic characterization of 2000 human (HEK293T) cells lysed using 1% Triton X-100. The simplicity and availability of the present BOPs make it especially attractive for next-stage proteomics of rare and sample-limited systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Taoka
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Metropolitan University , Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Michihiko Fujii
- Graduate School of Nanobioscience, Yokohama City University , Yokohama 236-0027, Japan
| | - Masahiro Tsuchiya
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Defense Academy , Yokosuka 239-8686, Japan
| | - Takamasa Uekita
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Defense Academy , Yokosuka 239-8686, Japan
| | - Tohru Ichimura
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Defense Academy , Yokosuka 239-8686, Japan
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17
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Tuerde D, Kimura T, Miyasaka T, Furusawa K, Shimozawa A, Hasegawa M, Ando K, Hisanaga SI. Isoform-independent and -dependent phosphorylation of microtubule-associated protein tau in mouse brain during postnatal development. J Biol Chem 2017; 293:1781-1793. [PMID: 29196605 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.798918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tau is a microtubule (MT)-associated protein that regulates MT dynamics in the axons of neurons. Tau binds to MTs via its C-terminal MT-binding repeats. There are two types of tau, those with three (3R) or four (4R) MT-binding repeats; 4R tau has a stronger MT-stabilizing activity than 3R tau. The MT-stabilizing activity of tau is regulated by phosphorylation. Interestingly, both the isoform and phosphorylation change at the time of neuronal circuit formation during postnatal development; highly phosphorylated 3R tau is replaced with 4R tau, which is less phosphorylated. However, it is not known how the transition of the isoforms and phosphorylation are regulated. Here, we addressed this question using developing mouse brains. Detailed analysis of developing brains revealed that the switch from 3R to 4R tau occurred during postnatal day 9 (P9) to P18 under the same time course as the conversion of phosphorylation from high to low. However, hypothyroidism, which is known to delay brain development, delayed the timing of tau dephosphorylation but not the exchange of isoforms, indicating that isoform switching and phosphorylation are not necessarily linked. Furthermore, we confirmed this finding by using mouse brains that expressed a single isoform of human tau. Human tau, either 3R or 4R, reduced phosphorylation levels during development even though the isoform did not change. We also found that 3R tau and 4R tau were phosphorylated differently in vivo even at the same developmental days. These results show for the first time that the phosphorylation and isoform alteration of tau are regulated differently during mouse development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilina Tuerde
- From the Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397
| | - Taeko Kimura
- From the Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397
| | - Tomohiro Miyasaka
- Neuropathology, Faculty of Life and Medical Sciences, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe-shi, Kyoto 610-0394, and
| | - Kotaro Furusawa
- From the Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397
| | - Aki Shimozawa
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Kanae Ando
- From the Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397
| | - Shin-Ichi Hisanaga
- From the Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397,
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