11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1(11β-HSD1) mediates insulin resistance through JNK activation in adipocytes

Role of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibition in the antiobesity effect of J2H-1702 on adipocytes and a high-fat diet-induced NASH model

Obesity due to excessive body fat accumulation remains a global problem. Patients with obesity have high cortisol levels, and its dysregulation is caused by increased 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) levels. The effects and mechanism of J2H-1702, an 11β-HSD1 inhibitor, on nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) were explored. This study compared the antiadipogenic effects of J2H-1702, elafibranor (PPARα/δ agonist), and BVT14225 (selective 11β-HSD1 inhibitor) using mouse 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. J2H-1702, elafibranor, and BVT14225 inhibited adipocyte differentiation and intracellular lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells by downregulating phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, phospho-c-Jun-N-terminal Kinase, c-Jun-N-terminal Kinase, phospho-P38 (P-P38), P38, CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins alpha and β, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, and glucocorticoid receptor. Additionally, J2H-1702, elafibranor, and BVT14225 treatments effectively inhibited 11β-HSD1 activity, as revealed by cortisol concentrations, and inhibited cortisone-induced adipocyte differentiation and intracellular lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells. These effects were associated with 11β-HSD1 protein inhibition. Furthermore, J2H-1702 and BVT14225 increased the expression of Akt and phosphoinositide 3-kinase involved in insulin resistance in 3T3L-1 adipocytes. In the LX-2 human hepatic stellate cell line, the relative expression of N-cadherin, 11β-HSD1, collagen1α (COLA1), α-actin of smooth muscle (α-SMA) genes in LX-2 activated with TGF-β increased significantly, and after treatment with J2H-1702, it was significantly reduced. The expression of E-cadherin is decreased in TGF-β-treated LX-2 cells and increased after treatment with J2H-1702. We tested the potential of J2H-1702 as a therapeutic agent for NASH using a high-fat diet-induced NASH model, with obeticholic acid, an FXR agonist, and elafibranor as reference drugs. All drugs significantly decreased the elevated triglyceride levels in the livers of high-fat, high-carbohydrate (HFHC-fed mice. The results may add to the benefits of targeting 11β-HSD1 inhibitors with antiadipogenic activity in developing a therapeutic agent for obesity treatment.

Molecular Docking Analysis of Selected Urtica dioica Constituents As Human Carbonic Anhydrase II (hCA-II), Human 11 Beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases Type 1 (h11beta-HSD1), and Human Dual Specificity Phosphatase (hCDC25B) Inhibitory Agents

Background Urtica dioica (Stinging nettle)has been reported to exhibit various pharmacological activities. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate 24 selected constituents of U. dioica as potent inhibitory agents of human carbonic anhydrase II (hCA-II), human 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases type 1 (h11beta-HSD1), and human dual specificity phosphatase (hCDC25B) using in silico method. Methodology The 24 selected constituents of U. dioica (Stinging nettle) were studied on the docking behavior of hCA-II, h11beta-HSD1, and hCDC25B by using the Webina docking method. In addition to docking, toxicity analysis was also performed using the pkCSM free web server, respectively. Results Toxicity analysis has shown that six ligands (25%) of U. dioica (Stinging nettle) are predicted to have hERG II (Human ether-a-go-go-related gene) inhibition activity. The docking analysis showed that afzelin, stigmastane-3, 6-diol, and astragalin of U. dioica have shown the maximum binding energy (-7.2, -9.5, and -8.5 kcal/mol) with the hCA-II, h11beta-HSD1 and hCDC25B, respectively. Conclusions Thus, the current finding provides new knowledge about the 24 selected ligands of U. dioica (Stinging nettle) as potent inhibitory agents of human carbonic anhydrase II (hCA-II), human 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases type 1 (h11beta-HSD1) and human dual specificity phosphatase (hCDC25B).

Evaluation of the Antidiabetic Activities of the Fruit of Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel.) Bullock and In Silico Identification of Its Antidiabetic Agent

The study investigated the antidiabetic potentials of the fruit extract of Parquetina nigrescens with the aim of justifying its folkloric antidiabetic usage in some part of Nigeria. Acute toxicity test of the plant extract was assessed using Lorke's method. Its antidiabetic activities were assayed in α-amylase, α-glucosidase, glucose, and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats' models at various doses with acarbose and glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) as positive controls. Molecular docking studies were performed to identify the antidiabetic constituent of the extract and elucidate its possible mechanism of action. The estimated median lethal dose (LD50) of the extract was above 5000 mg/kg. In the α-amylase, α-glucosidase study, the extract elicited concentration-dependent activity similar to acarbose. In the glucose-induced hyperglycaemic model, 200 mg/kg of the extract was the most effective dose with comparable (P > .05) antihyperglycaemic activity to glibenclamide (5 mg kg) at 1 to 4 h. Also in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats model, 100 and 200 mg/kg of the extract gave comparable (P > 0.05) activity on days 4 to 14 that were significantly better than that of glibenclamide on days 4 to 7. The n-hexane and ethylacetate fractions of the extract, both at 200 mg/kg were the most active with comparable activity to glibenclamide at all time points. The molecular docking studies identified isorhoifolin as the best binder against alpha amylase with binding energy (-9.1 kcal/mol), alpha glucosidase (-9.4 kcal/mol), sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (-9.5 kcal/mol), peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (-10.3 kcal/mol), 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (-10.8 kcal/mol), and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (-9.4 kcal/mol). The results of the antidiabetic study of P nigrescence fruit extract justified its usage in ethnomedicne in diabetes management.

P. Discovery of novel inhibitor of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 using in silico structure-based screening approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Purpose

The current study is aimed to perform structure-based screening of FDA-approved drugs that can act as novel inhibitor of the 11beta- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) enzyme.

Methods

Structural analogs of carbenoxolone (CBX) were selected from DrugBank database and their Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity (ADMET) parameters were investigated by SwissADME. Molecular docking of CBX analogs against 11β-HSD1 was performed by AutoDock tool, their binding patterns were visualized using PyMOL and the interacting amino acids were determined by ProteinPlus tool. Molecular dynamics simulation was performed on the docked structure of 11β-HSD1 (Protein Data Bank (PDB) code: 2ILT) using GROMACS 2018.1.

Results

The binding energies of hydrocortisone succinate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, testolactone, hydrocortisone cypionate, deoxycorticosterone acetate, and hydrocortisone probutate were lower than that of substrate corticosterone. The molecular dynamics simulation of 11β-HSD1 and hydrocortisone cypionate docked structure showed that it formed a stable complex with the inhibitor. The Root mean square deviation (RMSD) of the protein (0.37 ± 0.05 nm) and ligand (0.41 ± 0.06 nm) shows the stability of the ligand-protein interaction.

Conclusion

The docking study revealed that hydrocortisone cypionate has a higher binding affinity than carbenoxolone and its other analogs. The molecular dynamics simulation indicated the stability of the docked complex of 11β-HSD1 and hydrocortisone cypionate. These findings indicate the potential use of this FDA approved drug in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. However, validation by in vitro inhibitory studies and clinical trials on type 2 diabetes patients is essential to confirm the current findings.

Fresh insights into glucocorticoid-induced diabetes mellitus and new therapeutic directions

Glucocorticoid hormones were discovered to have use as potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapeutics in the 1940s and their continued use and development have successfully revolutionized the management of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases. However, long-term use of glucocorticoids is severely hampered by undesirable metabolic complications, including the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. These effects occur due to glucocorticoid receptor activation within multiple tissues, which results in inter-organ crosstalk that increases hepatic glucose production and inhibits peripheral glucose uptake. Despite the high prevalence of glucocorticoid-induced hyperglycaemia associated with their routine clinical use, treatment protocols for optimal management of the metabolic adverse effects are lacking or underutilized. The type, dose and potency of the glucocorticoid administered dictates the choice of hypoglycaemic intervention (non-insulin or insulin therapy) that should be provided to patients. The longstanding quest to identify dissociated glucocorticoid receptor agonists to separate the hyperglycaemic complications of glucocorticoids from their therapeutically beneficial anti-inflammatory effects is ongoing, with selective glucocorticoid receptor modulators in clinical testing. Promising areas of preclinical research include new mechanisms to disrupt glucocorticoid signalling in a tissue-selective manner and the identification of novel targets that can selectively dissociate the effects of glucocorticoids. These research arms share the ultimate goal of achieving the anti-inflammatory actions of glucocorticoids without the metabolic consequences.

Prednisone stimulates white adipocyte browning via β3-AR/p38 MAPK/ERK signaling pathway

AIMS

Prednisone is a corticosteroid-derived drug which is widely used for its role in immunosuppression and treatment of lung disorders. The current study reports, for the first time, the critical role of prednisone in the induction of white fat browning, thereby promoting thermogenic effect in cultured white adipocytes.

MAIN METHODS

The fat-browning activity of prednisone was evaluated in 3T3-L1 cells by quantitative real-time PCR, immunoblot analysis, immunofluorescence, and molecular docking techniques.

KEY FINDINGS

Exposure to prednisone stimulated browning in 3T3-L1 white adipocytes by increasing the expressions of core fat browning marker proteins (UCP1, PGC-1α and PRDM16) as well as beige-specific genes (Cd137, Cidea, Cited1, and Tbx1) via ATF2 and CREB activation mediated by p38 MAPK and ERK signaling, respectively. Prednisone exposure also resulted in the robust activation of lipolytic and fatty acid oxidation marker proteins, thereby increasing mitochondrial biogenesis. In addition, prednisone treatment resulted in reduced expression levels of adipogenic transcription factors while elevating SIRT1, as well as attenuation of lipogenesis and lipid droplets formation. Furthermore, molecular docking and mechanistic studies demonstrated the recruitment of beige fat by prednisone via the β3-AR/p38 MAPK/ERK signaling pathway.

SIGNIFICANCE

Taken together, these results indicate the unique role of prednisone as a fat-browning stimulant, and demonstrate its therapeutic potential in the treatment of obesity by enhancing thermogenesis.

The clinical significance of the glucocorticoid receptors: Genetics and epigenetics

The impacts of glucocorticoids (GCs) are mainly mediated by a nuclear receptor (GR) existing in almost every tissue. The GR regulates a wide range of physiological functions, including inflammation, cell metabolism, and differentiation playing a major role in cellular responses to GCs and stress. Therefore, the dysregulation or disruption of GR can cause deficiencies in the adaptation to stress and the preservation of homeostasis. The number of GR polymorphisms associated with different diseases has been mounting per year. Tackling these clinical complications obliges a comprehensive understanding of the molecular network action of GCs at the level of the GR structure and its signaling pathways. Beyond genetic variation in the GR gene, epigenetic changes can enhance our understanding of causal factors involved in the development of diseases and identifying biomarkers. In this review, we highlight the relationships of GC receptor gene polymorphisms and epigenetics with different diseases.

Calcium-Deficiency during Pregnancy Affects Insulin Resistance in Offspring

Prenatal malnutrition is known to affect the phenotype of the offspring through changes in epigenetic regulation. Growing evidence suggests that epigenetics is one of the mechanisms by which nutrients and minerals affect metabolic traits. Although the perinatal period is the time of highest phenotypic plasticity, which contributes largely to developmental programming, there is evidence of nutritional influence on epigenetic regulation during adulthood. Calcium (Ca) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance syndrome. Cortisol, the most important glucocorticoid, is considered to lead to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-1 is a key enzyme that catalyzes the intracellular conversion of cortisone to physiologically active cortisol. This brief review aims to identify the effects of Ca deficiency during pregnancy and/or lactation on insulin resistance in the offspring. Those findings demonstrate that maternal Ca deficiency during pregnancy may affect the epigenetic regulation of gene expression and thereby induce different metabolic phenotypes. We aim to address the need for Ca during pregnancy and propose the scaling-up of clinical and public health approaches that improved pregnancy outcomes.

Extracellular vesicles derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells repair functional and structural rat adrenal gland damage induced by fluoride

The adrenal glands have striking morpho-biochemical features that render them vulnerable to the effects of toxins.

AIMS

This study was conducted to explore the therapeutic utility of extracellular vesicles derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSC-EVs) against fluoride-induced adrenal toxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The work included isolation and further identification of BMSC-EVs by transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometric analysis. Adrenal toxicity in rats was induced by oral administration of 300 ppm of sodium fluoride (NaF) in drinking water for 60 days followed by a single dose injection of BMSC-EVs. The effects of BMSC-EVs against NaF was evaluated by adrenal oxidant/antioxidant biomarkers, hormonal assay of plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone (CORT) and mRNA gene expression quantitation for adrenal cortical steroidogenic pathway-encoding genes. Histopathological examination of the adrenal tissue was performed.

KEY FINDINGS

BMSC-EVs were effectively isolated and characterized. NaF exposure decreased adrenal superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, increased adrenal malondialdehyde levels, elevated plasma ACTH, diminished CORT concentrations and downregulated the adrenal cortical steroidogenic pathway-encoding genes. In addition, NaF-induced marked adrenal histopathological lesions.

SIGNIFICANCE

BMSC-EVs treatment repaired damaged adrenal tissue and recovered its function greatly following NaF consumption. BMSC-EVs reversed the toxic effects of NaF and reprogramed injured adrenal cells by activating regenerative processes.

Cortisol on Circadian Rhythm and Its Effect on Cardiovascular System

The synthesis and secretion of cortisol are controlled by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Cortisol exhibits a proper 24-h circadian rhythm that affects the brain, the autonomic nervous system, the heart, and the vasculature that prepares the cardiovascular system for optimal function during these anticipated behavioral cycles. A literature search was conducted using databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus. Relevant search terms included “circadian rhythm and cardiovascular”, “cortisol”, “cortisol and acute coronary syndrome”, “cortisol and arrhythmias”, “cortisol and sudden cardiac death”, “cortisol and stroke”, and “cardioprotective agents”. A total of 120 articles were obtained on the basis of the above search. Lower levels of cortisol were seen at the beginning of sleep, while there was a rise towards the end of sleep, with the highest level reached at the moment the individual wakes up. In the present review, we discuss the role of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD1), which is a novel molecular target of interest for treating metabolic syndrome and type-2 diabetes mellitus. 11β-HSD1 is the major determinant of cortisol excess, and its inhibition alleviates metabolic abnormalities. The present review highlights the role of cortisol, which controls the circadian rhythm, and describes its effect on the cardiovascular system. The review provides a platform for future potential cardioprotective therapeutic agents.

Molecular Mechanisms of Glucocorticoid-Induced Insulin Resistance

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex under the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis control, one of the major neuro-endocrine systems of the organism. These hormones are involved in tissue repair, immune stability, and metabolic processes, such as the regulation of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. Globally, GCs are presented as ‘flight and fight’ hormones and, in that purpose, they are catabolic hormones required to mobilize storage to provide energy for the organism. If acute GC secretion allows fast metabolic adaptations to respond to danger, stress, or metabolic imbalance, long-term GC exposure arising from treatment or Cushing’s syndrome, progressively leads to insulin resistance and, in fine, cardiometabolic disorders. In this review, we briefly summarize the pharmacological actions of GC and metabolic dysregulations observed in patients exposed to an excess of GCs. Next, we describe in detail the molecular mechanisms underlying GC-induced insulin resistance in adipose tissue, liver, muscle, and to a lesser extent in gut, bone, and brain, mainly identified by numerous studies performed in animal models. Finally, we present the paradoxical effects of GCs on beta cell mass and insulin secretion by the pancreas with a specific focus on the direct and indirect (through insulin-sensitive organs) effects of GCs. Overall, a better knowledge of the specific action of GCs on several organs and their molecular targets may help foster the understanding of GCs’ side effects and design new drugs that possess therapeutic benefits without metabolic adverse effects.

Molecular mechanisms governing offspring metabolic programming in rodent models of in utero stress

The results of different human epidemiological datasets provided the impetus to introduce the now commonly accepted theory coined as 'developmental programming', whereby the presence of a stressor during gestation predisposes the growing fetus to develop diseases, such as metabolic dysfunction in later postnatal life. However, in a clinical setting, human lifespan and inaccessibility to tissue for analysis are major limitations to study the molecular mechanisms governing developmental programming. Subsequently, studies using animal models have proved indispensable to the identification of key molecular pathways and epigenetic mechanisms that are dysregulated in metabolic organs of the fetus and adult programmed due to an adverse gestational environment. Rodents such as mice and rats are the most used experimental animals in the study of developmental programming. This review summarises the molecular pathways and epigenetic mechanisms influencing alterations in metabolic tissues of rodent offspring exposed to in utero stress and subsequently programmed for metabolic dysfunction. By comparing molecular mechanisms in a variety of rodent models of in utero stress, we hope to summarise common themes and pathways governing later metabolic dysfunction in the offspring whilst identifying reasons for incongruencies between models so to inform future work. With the continued use and refinement of such models of developmental programming, the scientific community may gain the knowledge required for the targeted treatment of metabolic diseases that have intrauterine origins.

Development of a three-dimensional in vitro co-culture model to increase drug selectivity for humans

AIM

Insulin resistance is a metabolic state where insulin sensitivity is lower than normal condition and strongly related to type 2 diabetes. However, an in vitro model mimicking insulin resistance is rare and thus screening drugs for insulin resistance severely depends on an in vivo model. Here, to increase anti-diabetic drug selectivity for humans, 3D ADMSCs and macrophages were co-cultured with in-house fabricated co-culture plates.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

3D co-culture plates were designed to load ADMSCs and RAW264.7 cells containing hydrogels in separate wells while allowing cell-cell interaction with co-culturing media. Hydrogels were constructed using a 3D cell-printing system containing 20 mg/ml alginate, 0.5 mg/ml gelatin and 0.5 mg/ml type I collagen. Cells containing hydrogels in 3D co-culture plates were incubated for 10 min to allow stabilization before the experiment. 3D co-culture plates were incubated with the CaCl2 solution for 5 min to complete the cross linking of alginate hydrogel. Cells in 3D co-culture plates were cultured for up to 12 days depending on the experiment and wells containing adipocytes and macrophages were separated and used for assays.

RESULTS

KR-1, KR-2 and KR-3 compounds were applied during differentiation (12 days) in 3D co-cultured mouse 3T3-L1 adipocytes and 3D co-cultured human ADMSCs. Glucose uptake assay using 2-DG6P and 2-NBDG and western blot analysis were performed to investigate changes of insulin resistance in the 3D co-cultured model for interspecies selectivity of drug screening. KR-1 (mouse potent enantiomer) and KR-3 (racemic mixture) showed improvement of 2-DG and 2-NBDG uptake compared with KR-2 (human potent enantiomer) in 3D co-cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In connection with insulin resistance in a 3D 3T3-L1 co-cultured model, KR-1 and KR-3 showed improvement of insulin sensitivity compared to KR-2 by markedly increasing GLUT4 expression. In contrast to the result of 3D co-cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes, KR-1 failed to significantly improve 2-DG and 2-NBDG uptake in 3D co-cultured ADMSC adipocytes. Results of 2-NBDG accumulation and western blot analysis also showed that KR-2 and KR-3 improved insulin sensitivity relatively better than KR-1.

CONCLUSIONS

Our 3D co-culture model with/without 3D co-culture plates can successfully mimic insulin resistance while allowing investigation of the effects of anti-obesity or anti-diabetic drugs on human or mouse co-culturing cell type. This 3D co-culture system may accelerate screening of drugs for insulin resistance depending on species.

Glucocorticoids regulate adipose tissue protein concentration in a depot- and sex-specific manner

Preclinical and clinical findings indicate that glucocorticoids (GC) induce lipid accumulation in visceral depots, while inhibiting lipid stores from subcutaneous depots. Whereas some suggest that this is due to adipose depot specific concentration of glucocorticoid receptors (GR) or 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (11β-HSD1), others demonstrate these events emerge from increases in interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) from macrophages within distinct depots. Regardless of the mechanisms, most of these studies occur in males and thus lack evaluation of sex differences. Here, we examined the impact of 2-week corticosterone (CORT) (3 mg/kg/day) or saline treatment on GR, 11β-HSD1 and IL-1β protein concentration in intra-abdominal (epididymal/parametrial, and visceral) and subcutaneous (inguinal) depots in male and female Sprague Dawley rats. The objective was to examine if factors that regulate GC-induced adipose depot metabolism and distribution, differ between males and females. CORT inhibited, but did not decrease, body weight gain in both sexes. 11β-HSD1 was similar between the sexes in all adipose depots. CORT increased IL-1β in both sexes only in gonadal adipose tissue. Overall, males had greater GR protein concentration in all adipose depots, whereas females had more IL-1β in intra-abdominal adipose depots. Given the male-biased increase in intra-abdominal GR protein concentration, the data suggest that males may be more prone to CORT-induced increases in visceral obesity, which may have implications for increased risk for metabolic diseases. Overall, the data suggest that the effects of GC signaling in adipose tissue are multifaceted, dependent on sex, and the inherent adipocyte characteristics.Lay summaryResearch supports that glucocorticoids (GC) induce visceral adipose tissue accumulation, however few studies have examined if these GC-mediated outcomes are similar between males and females. This study investigates if female rats differentially respond to corticosterone treatment. Results indicate that male rats may have an increased susceptibility to CORT-induced accumulation of visceral adipose tissue compared with females, which may have implication for sex-specific risk for metabolic diseases.

Effects of Parkia biglobosa aqueous seed extract on some biochemical, haematological and histopathological parameters in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parkia biglobosa seeds are used to treat diabetes and complications hence this study.

AIM

This study investigated the effects of Parkia biglobosa aqueous seed extract on some biochemical, haematological and histopathological indices in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats of either sex (180-300 g) were fasted overnight and diabetes mellitus induced using streptozotocin 40 mg/kg IP. Diabetes mellitus (fasting blood glucose ≥ 200 mg/dl) was confirmed 48 h later. The rats were randomly grouped into six groups (n = 5): Group 1 (diabetic untreated control), group 2 (Parkia biglobosa 200 mg/kg), group 3 (Parkia biglobosa 400 mg/kg). group 4 (Parkia biglobosa 800 mg/kg), group 5 (glibenclamide 5 mg/kg as standard drug control) and group 6 (normoglycaemic control). They were treated daily. Acute toxicity study and phytochemical screening were also performed. Fourteen days later, they were sacrificed under chloroform anaesthesia. Vital organs (kidneys, liver and pancreas) and blood samples were obtained for histopathological, biochemical and haematological analysis.

RESULTS

Parkia biglobosa aqueous seed extract at the various doses caused significant (P < 0.05) elevations in red blood cell parameters in comparison to the diabetic control. The mean cell volume did not differ significantly from the diabetic control while 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses of the extract did not significantly modify the HCT levels. Treatment with Parkia biglobosa significantly (P < 0.05) lowered white blood cell and platelet counts in comparison to the diabetic control. Liver enzymes and total bilirubin levels were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced while total protein increased in the treated diabetic rats in comparison to controls. Treatment with Parkia biglobosa extract significantly (P < 0.05) increased bicarbonate and sodium ion levels while decreasing potassium ion levels. Chloride levels were not significantly different from the diabetic control.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that Parkia biglobosa ameliorates biochemical, haematological and histopathological changes associated with diabetes mellitus.

Inter-correlations Among Clinical, Metabolic, and Biochemical Parameters and Their Predictive Value in Healthy and Overtrained Male Athletes: The EROS-CORRELATIONS Study

Objectives: The Endocrine and Metabolic Responses on Overtraining Syndrome (EROS) study identified multiple hormonal and metabolic conditioning processes in athletes, and underlying mechanisms and biomarkers of overtraining syndrome (OTS). The present study's objective was to reveal independent predictors and linear correlations among the parameters evaluated in the EROS study to predict clinical, metabolic, and biochemical behaviors in healthy and OTS-affected male athletes. Methods: We used multivariate linear regression and linear correlation to analyze possible combinations of the 38 parameters evaluated in the EROS study that revealed significant differences between healthy and OTS-affected athletes. Results: The testosterone-to-estradiol (T:E) ratio predicted the measured-to-predicted basal metabolic rate (BMR) ratio; the T:E ratio and total testosterone level were inversely predicted by fat mass and estradiol was not predicted by any of the non-modifiable parameters. Early and late growth hormone, cortisol, and prolactin responses to an insulin tolerance test (ITT) were strongly correlated. Hormonal responses to the ITT were positively correlated with fat oxidation, predicted-to-measured BMR ratio, muscle mass, and vigor, and inversely correlated with fat mass and fatigue. Salivary cortisol 30 min after awakening and the T:E ratio were inversely correlated with fatigue. Tension was inversely correlated with libido and directly correlated with body fat. The predicted-to-measured BMR ratio was correlated with muscle mass and body water, while fat oxidation was directly correlated with muscle mass and inversely correlated with fat mass. Muscle mass was directly correlated with body water, and extracellular water was directly correlated with body fat and inversely correlated with body water and muscle mass. Conclusions: Hypothalamic-pituitary responses to stimulation were diffuse and indistinguishable between the different axes. A late hormonal response to stimulation, increased cortisol after awakening, and the T:E ratio were correlated with vigor and fatigue. The T:E ratio was also correlated with body metabolism and composition, testosterone was predicted by fat mass, and estradiol predicted anger. Hydration status was inversely correlated with edema, and inter-correlations were found among fat oxidation, hydration, and body fat.

Kill two birds with one stone: making multi-transgenic pre-diabetes mouse models through insulin resistance and pancreatic apoptosis pathogenesis

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance accompanied by defective insulin secretion. Transgenic mouse models play an important role in medical research. However, single transgenic mouse models may not mimic the complex phenotypes of most cases of type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Focusing on genes related to pancreatic islet damage, peripheral insulin resistance and related environmental inducing factors, we generated single-transgenic (C/EBP homology protein, CHOP) mice (CHOP mice), dual-transgenic (human islet amyloid polypeptide, hIAPP; CHOP) mice (hIAPP-CHOP mice) and triple-transgenic (11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, 11β-HSD1; hIAPP; CHOP) mice (11β-HSD1-hIAPP- CHOP mice). The latter two types of transgenic (Tg) animals were induced with high-fat high-sucrose diets (HFHSD). We analyzed the diabetes-related symptoms and histology features of the transgenic animals.

RESULTS

Comparing symptoms on the spot-checked points, we determined that the triple-transgene mice were more suitable for systematic study. The results of intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests (IPGTT) of triple-transgene animals began to change 60 days after induction (p < 0.001). After 190 days of induction, the body weights (p < 0.01) and plasma glucose of the animals in Tg were higher than those of the animals in Negative Control (Nc). After sacrificed, large amounts of lipid were found deposited in adipose (p < 0.01) and ectopically deposited in the non-adipose tissues (p < 0.05 or 0.01) of the animals in the Tg HFHSD group. The weights of kidneys and hearts of Tg animals were significantly increased (p < 0.01). Serum C peptide (C-P) was decreased due to Tg effects, and insulin levels were increased due to the effects of the HFHSD in the Tg HFHSD group, indicating that damaged insulin secretion and insulin resistance hyperinsulinemia existed simultaneously in these animals. The serum corticosterone of Tg was slightly higher than those of Nc due to the effects of the 11βHSD-1 transgene and obesity. In Tg HFHSD, hepatic adipose deposition was more severe and the pancreatic islet area was enlarged under compensation, accompanying apoptosis. In the transgenic control diet (Tg ControlD) group, hepatic adipose deposition was also severe, pancreatic islets were damaged, and their areas were decreased (p < 0.05), and apoptosis of pancreatic cells occurred. Taken together, these data show the transgenes led to early-stage pathological changes characteristic of type 2 diabetes in the triple-transgene HFHSD group. The disease of triple-transgenic mice was more severe than that of dual or single-transgenic mice.

CONCLUSION

The use of multi-transgenes involved in insulin resistance and pancreatic apoptosis is a better way to generate polygene-related early-stage diabetes models.

Chronic stress and body composition disorders: implications for health and disease

Recent studies have suggested that body composition is key to health and disease. First, fat tissue is a complex, essential, and highly active metabolic and endocrine organ that responds to afferent signals from traditional hormone systems and the central nervous system but also expresses and secretes factors with important endocrine, metabolic, and immune functions. Second, skeletal muscle mass is an important predictor of health in adult life, while severe mass loss has been associated with the frailty of old age. Studies have shown that skeletal muscle is also an important endocrine organ that secretes factors with autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine actions, which have been associated with inflammatory processes. Third, the bone is also a systemic endocrine regulator playing a pivotal role in health and disease. Finally, proper hydration in humans has been neglected as a health factor, especially in adults. Chronic stress and stress hormone hypersecretion alone or associated with distinct disorders, such as anxiety, depression, obesity, metabolic syndrome, autoimmune disorders, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), have been associated with psychological and somatic manifestations, typically, increased fat mass, osteosarcopenia/frailty, cellular dehydration, and chronic systemic inflammation. This review aims to provide new insights into the newly developed concept of stress-related osteosarcopenic obesity and its prevention.