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Chang F, Gunderstofte C, Colussi N, Pitts M, Salvatore SR, Thielke AL, Turell L, Alvarez B, Goldbach-Mansky R, Villacorta L, Holm CK, Schopfer FJ, Hansen AL. Development of nitroalkene-based inhibitors to target STING-dependent inflammation. Redox Biol 2024; 74:103202. [PMID: 38865901 PMCID: PMC11215336 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) is essential for the inflammatory response to cytosolic DNA. Despite that aberrant activation of STING is linked to an increasing number of inflammatory diseases, the development of inhibitors has been challenging, with no compounds in the pipeline beyond the preclinical stage. We previously identified endogenous nitrated fatty acids as novel reversible STING inhibitors. With the aim of improving the specificity and efficacy of these compounds, we developed and tested a library of nitroalkene-based compounds for in vitro and in vivo STING inhibition. The structure-activity relationship study revealed a robustly improved electrophilicity and reduced degrees of freedom of nitroalkenes by conjugation with an aromatic moiety. The lead compounds CP-36 and CP-45, featuring a β-nitrostyrene moiety, potently inhibited STING activity in vitro and relieved STING-dependent inflammation in vivo. This validates the potential for nitroalkene compounds as drug candidates for STING modulation to treat STING-driven inflammatory diseases, providing new robust leads for preclinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Chang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | | | - Nicole Colussi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Mareena Pitts
- Department of Physiology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Anne L Thielke
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Lucia Turell
- Laboratorio de Enzimología, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay; Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CEINBIO), Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 11800, Uruguay
| | - Beatriz Alvarez
- Laboratorio de Enzimología, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay; Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CEINBIO), Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 11800, Uruguay
| | - Raphaela Goldbach-Mansky
- Translational Autoinflammatory Disease Studies Unit, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Luis Villacorta
- Department of Physiology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Christian K Holm
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood, And Vascular Medicine Institute (VMI), Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center (PLRC), Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine (C3M), Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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2
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Salvatore SR, Gómez-Cortés P, Rowart P, Woodcock SR, Angel de la Fuente M, Chang F, Schopfer FJ. Digestive interaction between dietary nitrite and dairy products generates novel nitrated linolenic acid products. Food Chem 2024; 437:137767. [PMID: 37879157 PMCID: PMC10844836 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated fatty acids are important anti-inflammatory and protective lipids formed in the gastric compartment, with conjugated linoleic acid (rumenic acid, RA, 9Z,11E-18:2) being the primary substrate for lipid nitration. The recently reported identification of nitrated rumelenic acid (NO2-RLA) in human urine has led to hypothesize that rumelenic acid (RLA, 9Z,11E,15Z-18:3) from dairy fat is responsible for the formation of NO2-RLA. To evaluate the source and mechanism of NO2-RLA formation, 15N labeled standards of NO2-RLA were synthesized and characterized. Afterward, milk fat with different RA and RLA levels was administered to mice in the presence of nitrite, and the appearance of nitrated fatty acids in plasma and urine followed. We confirmed the formation of NO2-RLA and defined the main metabolites in plasma, urine, and tissues. In conclusion, RLA obtained from dairy products is the main substrate for forming this novel electrophilic lipid reported to be present in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Pilar Gómez-Cortés
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CSIC-UAM), Nicolás Cabrera 9, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Pascal Rowart
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Miguel Angel de la Fuente
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CSIC-UAM), Nicolás Cabrera 9, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Fei Chang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood, and Vascular Medicine Institute (VMI), Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center (PLRC), Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine (C3M), Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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3
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Di Maio R, Keeney MT, Cechova V, Mortimer A, Sekandari A, Rowart P, Greenamyre JT, Freeman BA, Fazzari M. Neuroprotective actions of a fatty acid nitroalkene in Parkinson's disease. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2023; 9:55. [PMID: 37029127 PMCID: PMC10082007 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-023-00502-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
To date there are no therapeutic strategies that limit the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). The mechanisms underlying PD-related nigrostriatal neurodegeneration remain incompletely understood, with multiple factors modulating the course of PD pathogenesis. This includes Nrf2-dependent gene expression, oxidative stress, α-synuclein pathology, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. In vitro and sub-acute in vivo rotenone rat models of PD were used to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of a clinically-safe, multi-target metabolic and inflammatory modulator, the electrophilic fatty acid nitroalkene 10-nitro-oleic acid (10-NO2-OA). In N27-A dopaminergic cells and in the substantia nigra pars compacta of rats, 10-NO2-OA activated Nrf2-regulated gene expression and inhibited NOX2 and LRRK2 hyperactivation, oxidative stress, microglial activation, α-synuclein modification, and downstream mitochondrial import impairment. These data reveal broad neuroprotective actions of 10-NO2-OA in a sub-acute model of PD and motivate more chronic studies in rodents and primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Di Maio
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
| | - Matthew T Keeney
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Veronika Cechova
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Amanda Mortimer
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Ahssan Sekandari
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Pascal Rowart
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - J Timothy Greenamyre
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Marco Fazzari
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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4
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Lammari N, Louaer M, Louaer O, Bensouici C, Zermane A, Elaissari A, Meniai AH. Nanoparticles encapsulating sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum) oil: Physicochemical, antioxidant and enzymatic inhibition properties. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.104003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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5
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Carreño M, Pires MF, Woodcock SR, Brzoska T, Ghosh S, Salvatore SR, Chang F, Khoo NKH, Dunn M, Connors N, Yuan S, Straub AC, Wendell SG, Kato GJ, Freeman BA, Ofori-Acquah SF, Sundd P, Schopfer FJ, Vitturi DA. Immunomodulatory actions of a kynurenine-derived endogenous electrophile. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabm9138. [PMID: 35767602 PMCID: PMC9242454 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm9138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The up-regulation of kynurenine metabolism induces immunomodulatory responses via incompletely understood mechanisms. We report that increases in cellular and systemic kynurenine levels yield the electrophilic derivative kynurenine-carboxyketoalkene (Kyn-CKA), as evidenced by the accumulation of thiol conjugates and saturated metabolites. Kyn-CKA induces NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2- and aryl hydrocarbon receptor-regulated genes and inhibits nuclear factor κB- and NLR family pyrin domain containing 3-dependent proinflammatory signaling. Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hereditary hemolytic condition characterized by basal inflammation and recurrent vaso-occlusive crises. Both transgenic SCD mice and patients with SCD exhibit increased kynurenine and Kyn-CKA metabolite levels. Plasma hemin and kynurenine concentrations are positively correlated, indicating that Kyn-CKA synthesis in SCD is up-regulated during pathogenic vascular stress. Administration of Kyn-CKA abrogated pulmonary microvasculature occlusion in SCD mice, an important factor in lung injury development. These findings demonstrate that the up-regulation of kynurenine synthesis and its metabolism to Kyn-CKA is an adaptive response that attenuates inflammation and protects tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Carreño
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Maria F. Pires
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Steven R. Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tomasz Brzoska
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Samit Ghosh
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sonia R. Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Fei Chang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas K. H. Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Matthew Dunn
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nora Connors
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Shuai Yuan
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Adam C. Straub
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Center for Microvascular Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stacy G. Wendell
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Bruce A. Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Solomon F. Ofori-Acquah
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Prithu Sundd
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Francisco J. Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Dario A. Vitturi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Center for Critical Care Nephrology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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6
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Hellmuth N, Brat C, Awad O, George S, Kahnt A, Bauer T, Huynh Phuoc HP, Steinhilber D, Angioni C, Hassan M, Hock KJ, Manolikakes G, Zacharowski K, Roos J, Maier TJ. Structural Modifications Yield Novel Insights Into the Intriguing Pharmacodynamic Potential of Anti-inflammatory Nitro-Fatty Acids. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:715076. [PMID: 34867322 PMCID: PMC8637440 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.715076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous nitro-fatty acids (NFA) are potent electrophilic lipid mediators that exert biological effects in vitro and in vivo via selective covalent modification of thiol-containing target proteins. The cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumorigenic effects of NFA in animal models of disease caused by targeted protein nitroalkylation are a valuable basis for the development of future anti-phlogistic and anti-neoplastic drugs. Considering the complexity of diseases and accompanying comorbidities there is an urgent need for clinically effective multifunctional drugs. NFA are composed of a fatty acid backbone containing a nitroalkene moiety triggering Michael addition reactions. However, less is known about the target-specific structure–activity relationships and selectivities comparing different NFA targets. Therefore, we analyzed 15 NFA derivatives and compared them with the lead structure 9-nitro-oleic acid (9NOA) in terms of their effect on NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) signaling inhibition, induction of Nrf-2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) gene expression, sEH (soluble epoxide hydrolase), LO (lipoxygenase), and COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) inhibition, and their cytotoxic effects on colorectal cancer cells. Minor modifications of the Michael acceptor position and variation of the chain length led to drugs showing increased target preference or enhanced multi-targeting, partly with higher potency than 9NOA. This study is a significant step forward to better understanding the biology of NFA and their enormous potential as scaffolds for designing future anti-inflammatory drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Hellmuth
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Camilla Brat
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Omar Awad
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany.,Paul-Ehrlich Institute, Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, Langen, Germany
| | - Sven George
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Astrid Kahnt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Tom Bauer
- Paul-Ehrlich Institute, Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, Langen, Germany
| | - Hai Phong Huynh Phuoc
- Paul-Ehrlich Institute, Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, Langen, Germany
| | - Dieter Steinhilber
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Carlo Angioni
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Mohamed Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, TU Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt
| | - Katharina J Hock
- Department of Chemistry, TU Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | | | - Kai Zacharowski
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jessica Roos
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany.,Paul-Ehrlich Institute, Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, Langen, Germany
| | - Thorsten J Maier
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany.,Paul-Ehrlich Institute, Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, Langen, Germany
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7
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Fatty acid nitroalkene reversal of established lung fibrosis. Redox Biol 2021; 50:102226. [PMID: 35150970 PMCID: PMC8844680 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.102226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue fibrosis occurs in response to dysregulated metabolism, pro-inflammatory signaling and tissue repair reactions. For example, lungs exposed to environmental toxins, cancer therapies, chronic inflammation and other stimuli manifest a phenotypic shift to activated myofibroblasts and progressive and often irreversible lung tissue scarring. There are no therapies that stop or reverse fibrosis. The 2 FDA-approved anti-fibrotic drugs at best only slow the progression of fibrosis in humans. The present study was designed to test whether a small molecule electrophilic nitroalkene, nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA), could reverse established pulmonary fibrosis induced by the intratracheal administration of bleomycin in C57BL/6 mice. After 14 d of bleomycin-induced fibrosis development in vivo, lungs were removed, sectioned and precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) from control and bleomycin-treated mice were cultured ex vivo for 4 d with either vehicle or NO2-OA (5 μM). Biochemical and morphological analyses showed that over a 4 d time frame, NO2-OA significantly inhibited pro-inflammatory mediator and growth factor expression and reversed key indices of fibrosis (hydroxyproline, collagen 1A1 and 3A1, fibronectin-1). Quantitative image analysis of PCLS immunohistology reinforced these observations, revealing that NO2-OA suppressed additional hallmarks of the fibrotic response, including alveolar epithelial cell loss, myofibroblast differentiation and proliferation, collagen and α-smooth muscle actin expression. NO2-OA also accelerated collagen degradation by resident macrophages. These effects occurred in the absence of the recognized NO2-OA modulation of circulating and migrating immune cell activation. Thus, small molecule nitroalkenes may be useful agents for reversing pathogenic fibrosis of lung and other organs. Small molecule electrophiles, pleiotropic anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic drugs. NO2-OA inhibits activated myofibroblasts, induces dedifferentiation to fibroblasts. NO2-OA activates extracellular matrix degradation by macrophages. NO2-OA promotes proliferation of alveolar type 1 and 2 epithelial cells. NO2-OA reverses established lung fibrosis in murine lung slices.
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8
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Fang MY, Huang KH, Tu WJ, Chen YT, Pan PY, Hsiao WC, Ke YY, Tsou LK, Zhang MM. Chemoproteomic profiling reveals cellular targets of nitro-fatty acids. Redox Biol 2021; 46:102126. [PMID: 34509914 PMCID: PMC8441202 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.102126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitro-fatty acids are a class of endogenous electrophilic lipid mediators with anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects in a wide range of inflammatory and fibrotic disease models. While these beneficial biological effects of nitro-fatty acids are mainly attributed to their ability to form covalent adducts with proteins, only a small number of proteins are known to be nitro-alkylated and the scope of protein nitro-alkylation remains undetermined. Here we describe the synthesis and application of a clickable nitro-fatty acid probe for the detection and first global identification of mammalian proteins that are susceptible to nitro-alkylation. 184 high confidence nitro-alkylated proteins were identified in THP1 macrophages, majority of which are novel targets of nitro-fatty acids, including extended synaptotagmin 2 (ESYT2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) and glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1). In particular, we showed that 9-nitro-oleate covalently modified and inhibited dexamethasone binding to NR3C1. Bioinformatic analyses revealed that nitro-alkylated proteins are highly enriched in endoplasmic reticulum and transmembrane proteins, and are overrepresented in lipid metabolism and transport pathways. This study significantly expands the scope of protein substrates targeted by nitro-fatty acids in living cells and provides a useful resource towards understanding the pleiotropic biological roles of nitro-fatty acids as signaling molecules or as multi-target therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Yu Fang
- Institute of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Hsun Huang
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ju Tu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ting Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Department of Nephrology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yun Pan
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Chi Hsiao
- Institute of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan; Institute of Biotechnology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Yu Ke
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan
| | - Lun K Tsou
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan
| | - Mingzi M Zhang
- Institute of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, 35053, Taiwan.
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9
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Salvatore SR, Rowart P, Schopfer FJ. Mass spectrometry-based study defines the human urine nitrolipidome. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 162:327-337. [PMID: 33131723 PMCID: PMC10895545 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.10.305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated fatty acids (NO2-FA) are an endogenous class of signaling mediators formed mainly during digestion and inflammation. The signaling actions of NO2-FA have been extensively studied, but their detection and characterization lagged. Several different nitrated fatty acid species have been reported in animals and humans, but their formation remains controversial, and a systemic approach to define the endogenous pool of NO2-FA is needed. Herein, we screened for endogenous NO2-FA in urine from healthy human volunteers as this is the main excretion route for NO2-FA and its metabolites, and it provides an excellent matrix for evaluation. Only isomers of two fatty acids, conjugated linoleic and linolenic acid were found to be nitrated. Several, previously unknown, nitrated species were identified and confirmed using high-resolution mass spectrometry, fragmentation analysis, and compared to synthetic nitrated standards, the main group corresponding to nitrated conjugated linolenic acid (NO2-CLnA). In contrast, we were unable to confirm the presence of previously reported nitrated omega-3's, oleic acid, arachidonic acid and α- and γ-linolenic acid, suggesting that their biological formation and presence in humans should be re-evaluated. Metabolite analysis of NO2-CLnA in human urine identified cysteine adducts and β-oxidation products, which were compared to the metabolic products of nitrated standards obtained using primary mouse hepatocytes. Importantly, NO2-CLnA isomers belong to two defined groups, are electrophilic, participate in Michael addition reactions and account for 39% of total urinary NO2-FA, highlighting their relative abundance and possible role in cell signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Pascal Rowart
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA; Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood, and Vascular Medicine Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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10
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Grippo V, Mojovic M, Pavicevic A, Kabelac M, Hubatka F, Turanek J, Zatloukalova M, Freeman BA, Vacek J. Electrophilic characteristics and aqueous behavior of fatty acid nitroalkenes. Redox Biol 2020; 38:101756. [PMID: 33181478 PMCID: PMC7658499 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid nitroalkenes (NO2-FA) are endogenously-generated products of the reaction of metabolic and inflammatory-derived nitrogen dioxide (.NO2) with unsaturated fatty acids. These species mediate signaling actions and induce adaptive responses in preclinical models of inflammatory and metabolic diseases. The nitroalkene substituent possesses an electrophilic nature, resulting in rapid and reversible reactions with biological nucleophiles such as cysteine, thus supporting post-translational modifications (PTM) of proteins having susceptible nucleophilic centers. These reactions contribute to enzyme regulation, modulation of inflammation and cell proliferation and the regulation of gene expression responses. Herein, focus is placed on the reduction-oxidation (redox) characteristics and stability of specific NO2-FA regioisomers having biological and clinical relevance; nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA), bis-allylic nitro-linoleic acid (NO2-LA) and the conjugated diene-containing nitro-conjugated linoleic acid (NO2-cLA). Cyclic and alternating-current voltammetry and chronopotentiometry were used to the study of reduction potentials of these NO2-FA. R-NO2 reduction was observed around -0.8 V (vs. Ag/AgCl/3 M KCl) and is related to relative NO2-FA electrophilicity. This reduction process could be utilized for the evaluation of NO2-FA stability in aqueous milieu, shown herein to be pH dependent. In addition, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was used to define the stability of the nitroalkene moiety under aqueous conditions, specifically under conditions where nitric oxide (.NO) release could be detected. The experimental data were supported by density functional theory calculations using 6-311++G (d,p) basis set and B3LYP functional. Based on experimental and computational approaches, the relative electrophilicities of these NO2-FA are NO2-cLA >> NO2-LA > NO2-OA. Micellarization and vesiculation largely define these biophysical characteristics in aqueous, nucleophile-free conditions. At concentrations below the critical micellar concentration (CMC), monomeric NO2-FA predominate, while at greater concentrations a micellar phase consisting of self-assembled lipid structures predominates. The CMC, determined by dynamic light scattering in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) at 25 °C, was 6.9 (NO2-LA) 10.6 (NO2-OA) and 42.3 μM (NO2-cLA), respectively. In aggregate, this study provides new insight into the biophysical properties of NO2-FA that are important for better understanding the cell signaling and pharmacological potential of this class of mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Grippo
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, Olomouc, 775 15, Czech Republic
| | - Milos Mojovic
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 12-16, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandra Pavicevic
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 12-16, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Martin Kabelac
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branisovska 31, Ceske Budejovice, 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Frantisek Hubatka
- Department of Pharmacology and Immunotherapy, Veterinary Research Institute, v.v.i., Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Turanek
- Department of Pharmacology and Immunotherapy, Veterinary Research Institute, v.v.i., Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Zatloukalova
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, Olomouc, 775 15, Czech Republic
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Jan Vacek
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, Olomouc, 775 15, Czech Republic; The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Kralovopolska 135, Brno, 612 65, Czech Republic.
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11
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Vazquez MM, Gutierrez MV, Salvatore SR, Puiatti M, Dato VA, Chiabrando GA, Freeman BA, Schopfer FJ, Bonacci G. Nitro-oleic acid, a ligand of CD36, reduces cholesterol accumulation by modulating oxidized-LDL uptake and cholesterol efflux in RAW264.7 macrophages. Redox Biol 2020; 36:101591. [PMID: 32531545 PMCID: PMC7287307 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play a pivotal role in the early stages of atherosclerosis development; they excessively accumulate cholesterol in the cytosol in response to modified Low Density Lipoprotein (mLDL). The mLDL are incorporated through scavenger receptors. CD36 is a high-affinity cell surface scavenger receptor that facilitates the binding and uptake of long-chain fatty acids and mLDL into the cell. Numerous structurally diverse ligands can initiate signaling responses through CD36 to regulate cell metabolism, migration, and angiogenesis. Nitro-fatty acids are endogenous electrophilic lipid mediators that react with and modulate the function of multiple enzymes and transcriptional regulatory proteins. These actions induce the expression of several anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective genes and limit pathologic responses in experimental models of atherosclerosis, cardiac ischemia/reperfusion, and inflammatory diseases. Pharmacological and genetic approaches were used to explore the actions of nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA) on macrophage lipid metabolism. Pure synthetic NO2-OA dose-dependently increased CD36 expression in RAW264.7 macrophages and this up-regulation was abrogated in BMDM from Nrf2-KO mice. Ligand binding analysis revealed that NO2-OA specifically interacts with CD36, thus limiting the binding and uptake of mLDL. Docking analysis shows that NO2-OA establishes a low binding energy interaction with the alpha helix containing Lys164 in CD36. NO2-OA also restored autophagy flux in mLDL-loaded macrophages, thus reversing cholesterol deposition within the cell. In aggregate, these results indicate that NO2-OA reduces cholesterol uptake by binding to CD36 and increases cholesterol efflux by restoring autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matias M Vazquez
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología, CIBICI-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Maria V Gutierrez
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología, CIBICI-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States
| | - Marcelo Puiatti
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, INFIQC, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Virginia Actis Dato
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología, CIBICI-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Gustavo A Chiabrando
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología, CIBICI-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States
| | - Gustavo Bonacci
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología, CIBICI-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina.
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12
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Vitturi DA, Maynard C, Olsufka M, Straub AC, Krehel N, Kudenchuk PJ, Nichol G, Sayre M, Kim F, Dezfulian C. Nitrite elicits divergent NO-dependent signaling that associates with outcome in out of hospital cardiac arrest. Redox Biol 2020; 32:101463. [PMID: 32087553 PMCID: PMC7033352 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain and heart injury cause most out-of-hospital cardiac arrest deaths but limited pharmacotherapy exists to protect these tissues. Nitrite is a nitric oxide precursor that is protective in pre-clinical models of ischemic injury and safe in Phase I testing. Protection may occur by cGMP generation via the sGC pathway or through S-nitrosothiol and nitrated conjugated linoleic acid (NO2-CLA) formation. We hypothesized that nitrite provided during CPR signals through multiple pathways and that activation of signals is associated with OHCA outcome. To this end, we performed a secondary analysis of a phase 1 study of intravenous nitrite administration during resuscitation in adult out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Associations between whole blood nitrite and derived plasma signals (cGMP and NO2-CLA) with patient characteristics and outcomes were defined using Chi-square or t-tests and multiple logistic regression. Whole blood nitrite levels correlated inversely with plasma NO2-CLA (p = 0.039) but not with cGMP. Patients with shockable rhythms had higher cGMP (p = 0.027), NO2-CLA (p < 0.0001) and trended towards lower nitrite (p = 0.077). Importantly, plasma cGMP and NO2-CLA levels were higher in survivors (p = 0.033 and 0.019) and in those with good neurological outcome (p = 0.046 and 0.021). Nitrite was lower in patients with good neurologic outcome (p = 0.029). cGMP (OR 4.02; 95% CI 1.04–15.54; p = 0.044) and NO2-CLA (OR 3.74; 95% CI 1.11–12.65; p = 0.034) were associated with survival. Nitrite (OR 0.20; 95% CI 0.05–0.08; p = 0.026) and NO2-CLA (OR 3.96; 95% CI 1.01–15.60; p = 0.049) were associated with favorable neurologic outcome. In summary, nitrite administration was associated with increased plasma cGMP and NO2-CLA formation in selected OHCA patients. Furthermore, patients with the highest levels of cGMP and NO2-CLA were more likely to survive and experience better neurological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario A Vitturi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Charles Maynard
- Department of Health Services, University of Washington, USA
| | - Michele Olsufka
- Department of Health Services, University of Washington, USA; Department of Medicine, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, USA
| | - Adam C Straub
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Nick Krehel
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Peter J Kudenchuk
- Department of Medicine, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, USA
| | - Graham Nichol
- Department of Medicine, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, USA
| | - Michael Sayre
- Department of Medicine, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, USA
| | - Francis Kim
- Department of Medicine, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, USA
| | - Cameron Dezfulian
- Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Department of Critical Care Medicine, Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, USA.
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13
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Hansen AL, Mukai K, Schopfer FJ, Taguchi T, Holm CK. STING palmitoylation as a therapeutic target. Cell Mol Immunol 2019; 16:236-241. [PMID: 30796349 PMCID: PMC6460494 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-019-0205-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in the STING-encoding gene TMEM173 are central to the pathology of the autoinflammatory disorder STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). Furthermore, excessive activity of the STING signaling pathway is associated with autoinflammatory diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus and Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (AGS). Two independent studies recently identified pharmacological inhibitors of STING. Strikingly, both types of compounds are reactive nitro-containing electrophiles that target STING palmitoylation, a posttranslational modification necessary for STING signaling. As a consequence, the activation of downstream signaling molecules and the induction of type I interferons were inhibited. The compounds were effective at ameliorating inflammation in a mouse model of AGS and in blocking the production of type I interferons in primary fibroblasts from SAVI patients. This mini-review focuses on the roles of palmitoylation in STING activation and signaling and as a pharmaceutical target for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kojiro Mukai
- Laboratory of Organelle Pathophysiology, Department of Integrative Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Tomohiko Taguchi
- Laboratory of Organelle Pathophysiology, Department of Integrative Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Miyagi, Japan.
| | - Christian K Holm
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
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14
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Melo T, Montero-Bullón JF, Domingues P, Domingues MR. Discovery of bioactive nitrated lipids and nitro-lipid-protein adducts using mass spectrometry-based approaches. Redox Biol 2019; 23:101106. [PMID: 30718106 PMCID: PMC6859590 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FA) undergo reversible Michael adduction reactions with cysteine and histidine residues leading to the post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins. This electrophilic character of NO2-FA is strictly related to their biological roles. The NO2-FA-induced PTM of signaling proteins can lead to modifications in protein structure, function, and subcellular localization. The nitro lipid-protein adducts trigger a series of downstream signaling events that culminates with anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, and cytoprotective effects mediated by NO2-FA. These lipoxidation adducts have been detected and characterized both in model systems and in biological samples by using mass spectrometry (MS)-based approaches. These MS approaches allow to unequivocally identify the adduct together with the targeted residue of modification. The identification of the modified proteins allows inferring on the possible impact of the NO2-FA-induced modification. This review will focus on MS-based approaches as valuable tools to identify NO2-FA-protein adducts and to unveil the biological effect of this lipoxidation adducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tânia Melo
- Centro de Espectrometria de Massa, Departamento de Química & QOPNA, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Departamento de Química & CESAM & ECOMARE, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Javier-Fernando Montero-Bullón
- Centro de Espectrometria de Massa, Departamento de Química & QOPNA, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Pedro Domingues
- Centro de Espectrometria de Massa, Departamento de Química & QOPNA, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - M Rosário Domingues
- Centro de Espectrometria de Massa, Departamento de Química & QOPNA, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Departamento de Química & CESAM & ECOMARE, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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15
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Fazzari M, Vitturi DA, Woodcock SR, Salvatore SR, Freeman BA, Schopfer FJ. Electrophilic fatty acid nitroalkenes are systemically transported and distributed upon esterification to complex lipids. J Lipid Res 2018; 60:388-399. [PMID: 30545956 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m088815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophilic nitro-fatty acids [NO2-FAs (fatty acid nitroalkenes)] showed beneficial signaling actions in preclinical studies and safety in phase 1 clinical trials. A detailed description of the pharmacokinetics (PK) of NO2-FAs is complicated by the capability of electrophilic fatty acids to alkylate thiols reversibly and become esterified in various complex lipids, and the instability of the nitroalkene moiety during enzymatic and base hydrolysis. Herein, we report the mechanism and kinetics of absorption, metabolism, and distribution of the endogenously detectable and prototypical NO2-FA, 10-nitro-oleic acid (10-NO2-OA), in dogs after oral administration. Supported by HPLC-high-resolution-MS/MS analysis of synthetic and plasma-derived 10-NO2-OA-containing triacylglycerides (TAGs), we show that a key mechanism of NO2-FA distribution is an initial esterification into complex lipids. Quantitative analysis of plasma free and esterified lipid fractions confirmed time-dependent preferential incorporation of 10-NO2-OA into TAGs when compared with its principal metabolite, 10-nitro-stearic acid. Finally, new isomers of 10-NO2-OA were identified in vivo, and their electrophilic reactivity and metabolism characterized. Overall, we reveal that NO2-FAs display unique PK, with the principal mechanism of tissue distribution involving complex lipid esterification, which serves to shield the electrophilic character of this mediator from plasma and hepatic inactivation and thus permits efficient distribution to target organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Fazzari
- Fondazione Ri.MED, 90133 Palermo, Italy .,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Dario A Vitturi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
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16
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Buchan GJ, Bonacci G, Fazzari M, Salvatore SR, Gelhaus Wendell S. Nitro-fatty acid formation and metabolism. Nitric Oxide 2018; 79:38-44. [PMID: 30006146 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FA) are pleiotropic modulators of redox signaling pathways. Their effects on inflammatory signaling have been studied in great detail in cell, animal and clinical models primarily using exogenously administered nitro-oleic acid. While we know a considerable amount regarding NO2-FA signaling, endogenous formation and metabolism is relatively unexplored. This review will cover what is currently known regarding the proposed mechanisms of NO2-FA formation, dietary modulation of endogenous NO2-FA levels, pathways of NO2-FA metabolism and the detection of NO2-FA and corresponding metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Buchan
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Gustavo Bonacci
- CIBICI - CONICET, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, (U.N.C.), Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba C.P. N°: X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Marco Fazzari
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Fondazione Ri.MED, Via Bandiera 11, 90133 Palermo, Italy
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Stacy Gelhaus Wendell
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Clinical Translational Science Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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17
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Nitro-fatty acids: New drug candidates for chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases. Nitric Oxide 2018; 79:31-37. [PMID: 29944935 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated oleic acid (NO2-OA) was first identified in 2003, and after the characterization of its formation and thiol reactivity, it was used as a prototypical molecule to investigate the physiological actions of endogenous nitrated fatty acids (NO2-FA). Based on in vitro observations showing significant activation of cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory signaling responses by NO2-FA, experiments were designed to determine their pharmacological potential. Supported by strong intellectual protection and favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, 10-NO2-OA (CXA-10) underwent pharmaceutical development as a drug to treat fibrotic and inflammatory diseases. NO2-FA are at the intersection of three unconventional drug candidate classes that include 1) fatty acids, 2) metabolic intermediates and 3) electrophilic molecules. These three groups use different scaffolds for drug development, are characterized by broad activities and are individually gaining traction as alternatives to mono-target drug therapies. In particular, NO2-FA share key characteristics with currently approved pharmacological agents regarding reactivity, distribution, and mechanism of action. This review first presents the characteristics, liabilities, and opportunities that these different drug candidate classes display, and then discusses these issues in the context of current progress in the preclinical and clinical development of NO2-FA as drugs. Lessons learned from the novel approaches presented herein were considered early on during development to structurally define and improve NO2-FA and their disease targets.
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18
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Jobbagy S, Tan RJ. Nitrolipids in kidney physiology and disease. Nitric Oxide 2018; 78:S1089-8603(18)30006-5. [PMID: 29605557 PMCID: PMC6163094 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The kidneys are vital organs responsible for maintaining body fluid homeostasis within proper physiologic ranges. Kidney disease is an epidemic clinical problem causing significant morbidity and mortality, and current treatments are limited to renin-angiotensin system blockade or renal replacement therapy for the majority of affected individuals. There is a critical, unmet need for novel pharmacological agents to improve the outcome of patients with kidney disease. Nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA) is an endogenously generated electrophilic compound with the capacity to modify thiols in proteins, altering their function. The most important targets appear to be the Keap1/Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways, which have widespread effects on antioxidant, detoxifying, and inflammatory responses in cells and tissues. Through these and potentially additional protective actions, NO2-OA may be capable of preserving or enhancing kidney function in acute and chronic kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Jobbagy
- Department of Phamacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Roderick J Tan
- Division of Renal-Electrolyte, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA., United States.
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19
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Turell L, Steglich M, Alvarez B. The chemical foundations of nitroalkene fatty acid signaling through addition reactions with thiols. Nitric Oxide 2018; 78:S1089-8603(17)30305-1. [PMID: 29578058 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Nitroalkene fatty acids can be formed in vivo and administered exogenously. They exert pleiotropic signaling actions with cytoprotective and antiinflammatory effects. The presence of the potent electron withdrawing nitro group confers electrophilicity to the adjacent β-carbon. Thiols (precisely, thiolates) are strong nucleophiles and can react with nitroalkene fatty acids through reversible Michael addition reactions. In addition, nitroalkene fatty acids can undergo several other processes including metabolic oxidation, reduction, esterification, nitric oxide release and partition into hydrophobic compartments. The signaling actions of nitroalkenes are mainly mediated by reactions with critical thiols in regulatory proteins. Thus, the thio-Michael addition reaction provides a framework for understanding the molecular basis of the biological effects of nitroalkene fatty acids at the crossroads of thiol signaling and electrophilic lipid signaling. In this review, we describe the reactions of nitroalkene fatty acids in biological contexts. We focus on the Michael addition-elimination reaction with thiols and its mechanism, and extrapolate kinetic and thermodynamic considerations to in vivo settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Turell
- Laboratorio de Enzimología, Facultad de Ciencias and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Martina Steglich
- Laboratorio de Enzimología, Facultad de Ciencias and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Beatriz Alvarez
- Laboratorio de Enzimología, Facultad de Ciencias and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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20
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Rom O, Khoo NKH, Chen YE, Villacorta L. Inflammatory signaling and metabolic regulation by nitro-fatty acids. Nitric Oxide 2018; 78:S1089-8603(17)30329-4. [PMID: 29578057 PMCID: PMC6151155 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The addition of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to the double bond of unsaturated fatty acids yields an array of electrophilic nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FA) with unique biochemical and signaling properties. During the last decade, NO2-FA have been shown to exert a protective role in various inflammatory and metabolic disorders. NO2-FA exert their biological effects primarily by regulating two central physiological adaptive responses: the canonical inflammatory signaling and metabolic pathways. In this mini-review, we summarize current knowledge on the regulatory role of NO2-FA in the inflammatory and metabolic response via regulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), master regulators of inflammation and metabolism. Moreover, the engagement of novel signaling and metabolic pathways influenced by NO2-FA, beyond NF-κB and PPAR signaling, is discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Rom
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, USA
| | - Nicholas K H Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Y Eugene Chen
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, USA
| | - Luis Villacorta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, USA.
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Insights on Localized and Systemic Delivery of Redox-Based Therapeutics. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2018; 2018:2468457. [PMID: 29636836 PMCID: PMC5832094 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2468457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are indispensable in cellular physiology and signaling. Overproduction of these reactive species or failure to maintain their levels within the physiological range results in cellular redox dysfunction, often termed cellular oxidative stress. Redox dysfunction in turn is at the molecular basis of disease etiology and progression. Accordingly, antioxidant intervention to restore redox homeostasis has been pursued as a therapeutic strategy for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders among many others. Despite preliminary success in cellular and animal models, redox-based interventions have virtually been ineffective in clinical trials. We propose the fundamental reason for their failure is a flawed delivery approach. Namely, systemic delivery for a geographically local disease limits the effectiveness of the antioxidant. We take a critical look at the literature and evaluate successful and unsuccessful approaches to translation of redox intervention to the clinical arena, including dose, patient selection, and delivery approach. We argue that when interpreting a failed antioxidant-based clinical trial, it is crucial to take into account these variables and importantly, whether the drug had an effect on the redox status. Finally, we propose that local and targeted delivery hold promise to translate redox-based therapies from the bench to the bedside.
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Mathers AR, Carey CD, Killeen ME, Salvatore SR, Ferris LK, Freeman BA, Schopfer FJ, Falo LD. Topical electrophilic nitro-fatty acids potentiate cutaneous inflammation. Free Radic Biol Med 2018; 115:31-42. [PMID: 29132974 PMCID: PMC5767521 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous electrophilic fatty acids mediate anti-inflammatory responses by modulating metabolic and inflammatory signal transduction and gene expression. Nitro-fatty acids and other electrophilic fatty acids may thus be useful for the prevention and treatment of immune-mediated diseases, including inflammatory skin disorders. In this regard, subcutaneous (SC) injections of nitro oleic acid (OA-NO2), an exemplary nitro-fatty acid, inhibit skin inflammation in a model of allergic contact dermatitis (ACD). Given the nitration of unsaturated fatty acids during metabolic and inflammatory processes and the growing use of fatty acids in topical formulations, we sought to further study the effect of nitro-fatty acids on cutaneous inflammation. To accomplish this, the effect of topically applied OA-NO2 on skin inflammation was evaluated using established murine models of contact hypersensitivity (CHS). In contrast to the effects of subcutaneously injected OA-NO2, topical OA-NO2 potentiated hapten-dependent inflammation inducing a sustained neutrophil-dependent inflammatory response characterized by psoriasiform histological features, increased angiogenesis, and an inflammatory infiltrate that included neutrophils, inflammatory monocytes, and γδ T cells. Consistent with these results, HPLC-MS/MS analysis of skin from psoriasis patients displayed a 56% increase in nitro-conjugated linoleic acid (CLA-NO2) levels in lesional skin compared to non-lesional skin. These results suggest that nitro-fatty acids in the skin microenvironment are products of cutaneous inflammatory responses and, in high local concentrations, may exacerbate inflammatory skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia R Mathers
- Departments of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA; Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA.
| | - Cara D Carey
- Departments of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Meaghan E Killeen
- Departments of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Laura K Ferris
- Departments of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
| | - Louis D Falo
- Departments of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA; Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. USA
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23
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Villacorta L, Minarrieta L, Salvatore SR, Khoo NK, Rom O, Gao Z, Berman RC, Jobbagy S, Li L, Woodcock SR, Chen YE, Freeman BA, Ferreira AM, Schopfer FJ, Vitturi DA. In situ generation, metabolism and immunomodulatory signaling actions of nitro-conjugated linoleic acid in a murine model of inflammation. Redox Biol 2018; 15:522-531. [PMID: 29413964 PMCID: PMC5881417 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a prime substrate for intra-gastric nitration giving rise to the formation of nitro-conjugated linoleic acid (NO2-CLA). Herein, NO2-CLA generation is demonstrated within the context of acute inflammatory responses both in vitro and in vivo. Macrophage activation resulted in dose- and time-dependent CLA nitration and also in the production of secondary electrophilic and non-electrophilic derivatives. Both exogenous NO2-CLA as well as that generated in situ, attenuated NF-κB-dependent gene expression, decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine production and up-regulated Nrf2-regulated proteins. Importantly, both CLA nitration and the corresponding downstream anti-inflammatory actions of NO2-CLA were recapitulated in a mouse peritonitis model where NO2-CLA administration decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibited leukocyte recruitment. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the formation of NO2-CLA has the potential to function as an adaptive response capable of not only modulating inflammation amplitude but also protecting neighboring tissues via the expression of Nrf2-dependent genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villacorta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Lucia Minarrieta
- Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Química y Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay; Institute of Infection Immunology, TWINCORE, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sonia R Salvatore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas K Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Oren Rom
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zhen Gao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Rebecca C Berman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Soma Jobbagy
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lihua Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Y Eugene Chen
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Ana M Ferreira
- Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Química y Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Dario A Vitturi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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24
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Fazzari M, Khoo NKH, Woodcock SR, Jorkasky DK, Li L, Schopfer FJ, Freeman BA. Nitro-fatty acid pharmacokinetics in the adipose tissue compartment. J Lipid Res 2016; 58:375-385. [PMID: 27913584 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m072058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrophilic nitro-FAs (NO2-FAs) promote adaptive and anti-inflammatory cell signaling responses as a result of an electrophilic character that supports posttranslational protein modifications. A unique pharmacokinetic profile is expected for NO2-FAs because of an ability to undergo reversible reactions including Michael addition with cysteine-containing proteins and esterification into complex lipids. Herein, we report via quantitative whole-body autoradiography analysis of rats gavaged with radiolabeled 10-nitro-[14C]oleic acid, preferential accumulation in adipose tissue over 2 weeks. To better define the metabolism and incorporation of NO2-FAs and their metabolites in adipose tissue lipids, adipocyte cultures were supplemented with 10-nitro-oleic acid (10-NO2-OA), nitro-stearic acid, nitro-conjugated linoleic acid, and nitro-linolenic acid. Then, quantitative HPLC-MS/MS analysis was performed on adipocyte neutral and polar lipid fractions, both before and after acid hydrolysis of esterified FAs. NO2-FAs preferentially incorporated in monoacyl- and diacylglycerides, while reduced metabolites were highly enriched in triacylglycerides. This differential distribution profile was confirmed in vivo in the adipose tissue of NO2-OA-treated mice. This pattern of NO2-FA deposition lends new insight into the unique pharmacokinetics and pharmacologic actions that could be expected for this chemically-reactive class of endogenous signaling mediators and synthetic drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Fazzari
- Fondazione Ri.MED, 90133 Palermo, Italy.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Nicholas K H Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | | | - Lihua Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
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