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Sharafeldin M, Kadimisetty K, Bhalerao KS, Chen T, Rusling JF. 3D-Printed Immunosensor Arrays for Cancer Diagnostics. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20164514. [PMID: 32806676 PMCID: PMC7472114 DOI: 10.3390/s20164514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Detecting cancer at an early stage of disease progression promises better treatment outcomes and longer lifespans for cancer survivors. Research has been directed towards the development of accessible and highly sensitive cancer diagnostic tools, many of which rely on protein biomarkers and biomarker panels which are overexpressed in body fluids and associated with different types of cancer. Protein biomarker detection for point-of-care (POC) use requires the development of sensitive, noninvasive liquid biopsy cancer diagnostics that overcome the limitations and low sensitivities associated with current dependence upon imaging and invasive biopsies. Among many endeavors to produce user-friendly, semi-automated, and sensitive protein biomarker sensors, 3D printing is rapidly becoming an important contemporary tool for achieving these goals. Supported by the widely available selection of affordable desktop 3D printers and diverse printing options, 3D printing is becoming a standard tool for developing low-cost immunosensors that can also be used to make final commercial products. In the last few years, 3D printing platforms have been used to produce complex sensor devices with high resolution, tailored towards researchers’ and clinicians’ needs and limited only by their imagination. Unlike traditional subtractive manufacturing, 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has drastically reduced the time of sensor and sensor array development while offering excellent sensitivity at a fraction of the cost of conventional technologies such as photolithography. In this review, we offer a comprehensive description of 3D printing techniques commonly used to develop immunosensors, arrays, and microfluidic arrays. In addition, recent applications utilizing 3D printing in immunosensors integrated with different signal transduction strategies are described. These applications include electrochemical, chemiluminescent (CL), and electrochemiluminescent (ECL) 3D-printed immunosensors. Finally, we discuss current challenges and limitations associated with available 3D printing technology and future directions of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Sharafeldin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; (M.S.); (K.S.B.); (T.C.)
| | - Karteek Kadimisetty
- LifeSensors Inc., 271 Great Valley Parkway, Suite 100, Malvern, PA 19355, USA;
| | - Ketki S. Bhalerao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; (M.S.); (K.S.B.); (T.C.)
| | - Tianqi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; (M.S.); (K.S.B.); (T.C.)
| | - James F. Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; (M.S.); (K.S.B.); (T.C.)
- Department of Surgery and Neag Cancer Center, UConn Health, Farmington, CT 06032, USA
- School of Chemistry, National University of Ireland at Galway, Galway H91 TK33, Ireland
- Correspondence:
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Halawa MI, Mostafa IM, Tolba MM, El-Shabrawy Y, Li BS. Development of Ru(bpy)32+-amisulpride electrogenerated chemiluminescence system for ultrasensitive and selective detection of amisulpride in pharmaceuticals and real plasma. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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3
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Nerimetla R, Premaratne G, Liu H, Krishnan S. Improved electrocatalytic metabolite production and drug biosensing by human liver microsomes immobilized on amine-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.05.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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4
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Guo W, Liu Y, Cao Z, Su B. Imaging Analysis Based on Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence. JOURNAL OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41664-017-0013-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Trumbo-White CM, Hvastkovs EG. Electrochemical Assessment of Sequence Selective DNA Damage from Myoglogin and Cytochrome P450 Bioactivated Benzo[ a]pyrene at TP53 Oligomers. ELECTROANAL 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201600109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Eli G. Hvastkovs
- Department of Chemistry; East Carolina University; Greenville, NC
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6
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Bano K, Rusling JF. Electrochemiluminescence Arrays for Studies of Metabolite-related Toxicity. ELECTROANAL 2016; 28:2636-2643. [PMID: 28592918 DOI: 10.1002/elan.201600207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews recent progress from our laboratory in electrochemiluminescence (ECL) arrays designed for screening toxicity-related chemistry of chemical and drug candidates. Cytochrome P450s and metabolic bioconjugation enzymes convert lipophilic chemicals in our bodies by oxidation and bioconjugation that can lead to toxic metabolites. DNA can be used as an easily measurable toxicity-related endpoint, targeting DNA oxidation and addcut formation with metabolites. ECL using guanosines in the DNA strands as co-reactants have been used in high throughput arrays utilizing DNA-enzyme films fabricated layer-by-layer. This review describes approaches developed to provide new high throughput ECL arrays to aid in toxicity assessment for drug and chemical product development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Bano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - James F Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.,Department of Surgery and Neag Cancer Center, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06032, USA.,Institute of Material Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.,School of Chemistry, NationalUniversity of Ireland at Galway, Ireland
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Thakur B, Jayakumar S, Sawant SN. Probing extracellular acidity of live cells in real time for cancer detection and monitoring anti-cancer drug activity. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:7015-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc01445j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A multifunctional platform is presented which (a) allows determination of extracellular pH in real time, (b) detects cancer cells, down to 5 cells, and (c) enables evaluating the efficacy of glycolysis inhibiting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S. Jayakumar
- Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division
- Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
- Mumbai 400085
- India
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Liu S, Li M, Yu X, Li CZ, Liu H. Biomacromolecular logic gate, encoder/decoder and keypad lock based on DNA damage with electrochemiluminescence and electrochemical signals as outputs. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc04412j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Biomacromolecular logic devices including a keypad lock were developed based on the damage of natural DNA in Ru(bpy)32+ solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Liu
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- People's Republic of China
| | - Menglu Li
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Yu
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- People's Republic of China
| | - Chen-Zhong Li
- Nanobioengineering/Bioelectronics Laboratory
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- Florida International University
- Miami
- USA
| | - Hongyun Liu
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry
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Label-free and rapid colorimetric detection of DNA damage based on self-assembly of a hemin-graphene nanocomposite. Mikrochim Acta 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-014-1245-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Lu Q, Zhou Z, Mei Y, Wei W, Liu S. Detection of DNA damage by thiazole orange fluorescence probe assisted with exonuclease III. Talanta 2013; 116:958-63. [PMID: 24148501 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This work reports a fluorescent dye insertion approach for detection of DNA damage. The capture DNA with overhanging 3'-terminus was immobilized on silicon surface to hybridize with target DNA. The intercalation of cyanine dye of thiazole orange (TO) to the double helix structure of DNA (dsDNA) allowed intense enhancement of fluorescence signal. The DNA damage with chemicals led to poor intercalation of TO into double helix structure, resulting in the decrease of the fluorescence signal. This signal decrease could be further enhanced by exonuclease III (Exo III). With this approach, the target DNA could be detected down to 47 fM. Seven chemicals were chosen as models to monitor DNA damage. The results suggested that the present strategy could be developed to detect DNA damage, to classify the damaging mechanism with chemicals and to estimate the toxic effect of chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Lu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Jiangning District 211189, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China
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Wasalathanthri DP, Faria RC, Malla S, Joshi AA, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Screening reactive metabolites bioactivated by multiple enzyme pathways using a multiplexed microfluidic system. Analyst 2013; 138:171-8. [PMID: 23095952 PMCID: PMC3509269 DOI: 10.1039/c2an35993f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
A multiplexed, microfluidic platform to detect reactive metabolites is described, and its performance is illustrated for compounds metabolized by oxidative and bioconjugation enzymes in multi-enzyme pathways to mimic natural human drug metabolism. The device features four 8-electrode screen printed carbon arrays coated with thin films of DNA, a ruthenium-polyvinylpyridine (RuPVP) catalyst, and multiple enzyme sources including human liver microsomes (HLM), cytochrome P450 (cyt P450) 1B1 supersomes, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (EH), human S9 liver fractions (Hs9) and N-acetyltransferase (NAT). Arrays are arranged in parallel to facilitate multiple compound screening, enabling up to 32 enzyme reactions and measurements in 20-30 min. In the first step of the assay, metabolic reactions are achieved under constant flow of oxygenated reactant solutions by electrode driven natural catalytic cycles of cyt P450s and cofactor-supported bioconjugation enzymes. Reactive metabolites formed in the enzyme reactions can react with DNA. Relative DNA damage is measured in the second assay step using square wave voltammetry (SWV) with RuPVP as catalyst. Studies were done on chemicals known to require metabolic activation to induce genotoxicity, and results reproduced known features of metabolite DNA-reactivity for the test compounds. Metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) by cyt P450s and epoxide hydrolase showed an enhanced relative DNA damage rate for DNA compared to cyt P450s alone. DNA damage rates for arylamines by pathways featuring both oxidative and conjugative enzymes at pH 7.4 gave better correlation with rodent genotoxicity metric TD(50). Results illustrate the broad utility of the reactive metabolite screening device.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ronaldo C. Faria
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Spundana Malla
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
| | - Amit A. Joshi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
| | - John B. Schenkman
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | - James F. Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
- NationalUniversity of Ireland at Galway, Ireland
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
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12
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Deng S, Ju H. Electrogenerated chemiluminescence of nanomaterials for bioanalysis. Analyst 2013; 138:43-61. [DOI: 10.1039/c2an36122a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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13
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Abstract
Considerable support exists for the roles of metabolism in modulating the carcinogenic properties of chemicals. In particular, many of these compounds are pro-carcinogens that require activation to electrophilic forms to exert genotoxic effects. We systematically analyzed the existing literature on the metabolism of carcinogens by human enzymes, which has been developed largely in the past 25 years. The metabolism and especially bioactivation of carcinogens are dominated by cytochrome P450 enzymes (66% of bioactivations). Within this group, six P450s--1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 2A6, 2E1, and 3A4--accounted for 77% of the P450 activation reactions. The roles of these P450s can be compared with those estimated for drug metabolism and should be considered in issues involving enzyme induction, chemoprevention, molecular epidemiology, interindividual variations, and risk assessment.
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Xu L, Li Y, Wu S, Liu X, Su B. Imaging latent fingerprints by electrochemiluminescence. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:8068-72. [PMID: 22865566 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linru Xu
- Institute of Microanalytical Systems, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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15
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Xu L, Li Y, Wu S, Liu X, Su B. Imaging Latent Fingerprints by Electrochemiluminescence. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201203815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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16
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Paleček
- Institute of Biophysics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Kralovopolska 135, 612
65 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Bartošík
- Institute of Biophysics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Kralovopolska 135, 612
65 Brno, Czech Republic
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17
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Wasalathanthri DP, Mani V, Tang CK, Rusling JF. Microfluidic electrochemical array for detection of reactive metabolites formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes. Anal Chem 2011; 83:9499-506. [PMID: 22040095 DOI: 10.1021/ac202269t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel, simple, rapid microfluidic array using bioelectronically driven cytochrome P450 enzyme catalysis for reactive metabolite screening is reported for the first time. The device incorporates an eight-electrode screen-printed carbon array coated with thin films of DNA, [Ru(bpy)(2)(PVP)(10)](ClO(4)) {RuPVP}, and rat liver microsomes (RLM) as enzyme sources. Catalysis features electron donation to cyt P450 reductase in the RLMs and subsequent cyt P450 reduction while flowing an oxygenated substrate solution past sensor electrodes. Metabolites react with DNA in the film if they are able, and damaged DNA is detected by catalytic square wave voltammetry (SWV) utilizing the RuPVP polymer. The microfluidic device was tested for a set of common pollutants known to form DNA-reactive metabolites. Logarithmic turnover rates based on SWV responses gave excellent correlation with the rodent liver TD(50) toxicity metric, supporting the utility of the device for toxicity screening. The microfluidic array gave much better S/N and reproducibility than single-electrode sensors based on similar principles.
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18
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Chen XM, Su BY, Song XH, Chen QA, Chen X, Wang XR. Recent advances in electrochemiluminescent enzyme biosensors. Trends Analyt Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2010.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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19
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Pan S, Zhao L, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Evaluation of electrochemiluminescent metabolic toxicity screening arrays using a multiple compound set. Anal Chem 2011; 83:2754-60. [PMID: 21395325 DOI: 10.1021/ac200050n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Arrays for screening metabolite-generated toxicity utilizing spots containing DNA, enzyme, and electroluminescent (ECL) polymer ([Ru(bpy)(2)PVP(10)](2+)) were extended to include a fully representative set of metabolic enzymes from human and rat liver microsomes, human and rat liver cytosol, and mouse liver S9 fractions. Array use involves two steps: (1) enzyme activation of the test chemical and metabolite reaction with DNA, and then, (2) capture of ECL resulting from DNA damage using a charge coupled device (CCD) camera. Plots of ECL increase vs enzyme reaction time monitor relative rates of DNA damage and were converted into turnover rates for enzymic production of DNA-reactive metabolites. ECL turnover rates were defined by R, the initial slope of ECL increase versus enzyme reaction time normalized for amounts of enzyme and test chemical. R-values were used to establish correlations for 11 toxic compounds with the standard toxicity metrics rodent liver TD(50) and lethal dose (LD(50)), Ames tests, and Comet assays for in vitro DNA damage. Results support the value of the ECL genotoxicity arrays together with toxicity bioassays for early screening of new chemicals and drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenmin Pan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
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20
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Zhao L, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. High-throughput metabolic toxicity screening using magnetic biocolloid reactors and LC-MS/MS. Anal Chem 2010; 82:10172-8. [PMID: 21090635 DOI: 10.1021/ac102317a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An inexpensive, high-throughput genotoxicity screening method was developed by using magnetic particles coated with cytosol/microsome/DNA films as biocolloid reactors in a 96-well plate format coupled with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Incorporation of both microsomal and cytosolic enzymes in the films provides a broad spectrum of metabolic enzymes representing a range of metabolic pathways for bioactivation of chemicals. Reactive metabolites generated via this process are trapped by covalently binding to DNA in the film. The DNA is then hydrolyzed and nucleobase adducts are collected using filters in the bottom for the 96-well plate of analysis by capillary liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The magnetic particles facilitate simple and rapid sample preparation and workup. Major DNA adducts from ethylene dibromide, N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene and styrene were identified in proof-of-concept studies. Relative formation rates of DNA adducts correlated well with rodent genotoxicity metric TD(50) for the three compounds. This method has the potential for high-throughput genotoxicity screening, providing chemical structure information that is complementary to toxicity bioassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
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Zhao L, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Screening for reactive metabolites using electro-optical arrays featuring human liver cytosol and microsomal enzyme sources and DNA. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:5386-8. [PMID: 19724793 PMCID: PMC3475954 DOI: 10.1039/b909372a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate for the first time the combination of human liver cytosol and microsomal enzyme sources into an electro-optical array to screen for reactive metabolites produced in multi-enzyme metabolic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 N. Eagleville Rd, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - John B. Schenkman
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - James F. Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 N. Eagleville Rd, Storrs, CT, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Farmington, CT, USA
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Li X, Tian Y, Xia P, Luo Y, Rui Q. Fabrication of TiO2 and Metal Nanoparticle−Microelectrode Arrays by Photolithography and Site-Selective Photocatalytic Deposition. Anal Chem 2009; 81:8249-55. [DOI: 10.1021/ac9009879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoguang Li
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Tian
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Peipei Xia
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yongping Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qi Rui
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
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Zhao L, Krishnan S, Zhang Y, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Differences in metabolite-mediated toxicity of tamoxifen in rodents versus humans elucidated with DNA/microsome electro-optical arrays and nanoreactors. Chem Res Toxicol 2009; 22:341-7. [PMID: 19166339 DOI: 10.1021/tx8004295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Tamoxifen, a therapeutic and chemopreventive breast cancer drug, was chosen as a model compound because of acknowledged species specific toxicity differences. Emerging approaches utilizing electro-optical arrays and nanoreactors based on DNA/microsome films were used to compare metabolite-mediated toxicity differences of tamoxifen in rodents versus humans. Hits triggered by liver enzyme metabolism were first provided by arrays utilizing a DNA damage end point. The arrays feature thin-film spots containing an electrochemiluminescent (ECL) ruthenium polymer ([Ru(bpy)(2)PVP(10)](2+); PVP, polyvinylpyridine), DNA, and liver microsomes. When DNA damage resulted from reactions with tamoxifen metabolites, it was detected by an increase in light from the oxidation of the damaged DNA by the ECL metallopolymer. The slope of ECL generation versus enzyme reaction time correlated with the rate of DNA damage. An approximate 2-fold greater ECL turnover rate was observed for spots with rat liver microsomes compared to that with human liver microsomes. These results were supported by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis of reaction products using nanoreactors featuring analogous films on silica nanoparticles, allowing the direct measurement of the relative formation rate for alpha-(N(2)-deoxyguanosinyl)tamoxifen. We observed 2-5-fold more rapid formation rates for three major metabolites, i.e., alpha-hydroxytamoxifen, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, and tamoxifen N-oxide, catalyzed by rat liver microsomes compared to human liver microsomes. Comparable formation rates were observed for N-desmethyl tamoxifen with rat and human liver microsomes. A better detoxifying capacity for human liver microsomes than rat liver microsomes was confirmed utilizing glucuronyltransferase in microsomes together with UDP-glucuronic acid. Taken together, lower genotoxicity and higher detoxication rates presented by human liver microsomes correlate with the lower risk of tamoxifen in causing liver carcinoma in humans, provided the glucuronidation pathway is active.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, 55 N. Eagleville Road, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
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Krishnan S, Bajrami B, Mani V, Pan S, Rusling JF. Comparison of DNA-Reactive Metabolites from Nitrosamine and Styrene Using Voltammetric DNA/Microsomes Sensors. ELECTROANAL 2009; 21:1005-1013. [PMID: 23100998 DOI: 10.1002/elan.200804521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Voltammetric sensors made with films of polyions, double-stranded DNA and liver microsomes adsorbed layer-by-layer onto pyrolytic graphite electrodes were evaluated for reactive metabolite screening. This approach features simple, inexpensive screening without enzyme purification for applications in drug or environmental chemical development. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) in the liver microsomes were activated by an NADPH regenerating system or by electrolysis to metabolize model carcinogenic compounds nitrosamine and styrene. Reactive metabolites formed in the films were trapped as adducts with nucleobases on DNA. The DNA damage was detected by square-wave voltammetry (SWV) using [Formula: see text] as a DNA-oxidation catalyst. These sensors showed a larger rate of increase in signal vs. reaction time for a highly toxic nitrosamine than for the moderately toxic styrene due to more rapid reactive metabolite-DNA adduct formation. Results were consistent with reported in vivo TD(50) data for the formation of liver tumors in rats. Analogous polyion/ liver microsome films prepared on 500 nm silica nanoparticles (nanoreactors) and reacted with nitrosamine or styrene, provided LC-MS or GC analyses of metabolite formation rates that correlated well with sensor response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3060, USA
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Liu S, Hu Y, Jin J, Zhang H, Cai C. Electrochemical detection of hepatitis C virus based on site-specific DNA cleavage of BamHI endonuclease. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:1635-7. [PMID: 19294245 DOI: 10.1039/b900690g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a new electrochemical approach for qualitative and quantitative detection of hepatitis C virus (HCV) based on the site-specific DNA cleavage of BamHI endonuclease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuna Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210097, PR China
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Hull DO, Bajrami B, Jansson I, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Characterizing metabolic inhibition using electrochemical enzyme/DNA biosensors. Anal Chem 2009; 81:716-24. [PMID: 19099359 PMCID: PMC2684828 DOI: 10.1021/ac802179s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Studies of metabolic enzyme inhibition are necessary in drug development and toxicity investigations as potential tools to limit or prevent appearance of deleterious metabolites formed, for example, by cytochrome (cyt) P450 enzymes. In this paper, we evaluate the use of enzyme/DNA toxicity biosensors as tools to investigate enzyme inhibition. We have examined DNA damage due to cyt P450cam metabolism of styrene using DNA/enzyme films on pyrolytic graphite (PG) electrodes monitored via Ru(bpy)(3)(2+)-mediated DNA oxidation. Styrene metabolism initiated by hydrogen peroxide was evaluated with and without the inhibitors, imidazole, imidazole-4-acetic acid, and sulconazole (in micromolar range) to monitor DNA damage inhibition. The initial rates of DNA damage decreased with increased inhibitor concentrations. Linear and nonlinear fits of Michaelis-Menten inhibition models were used to determine apparent inhibition constants (K(I)*) for the inhibitors. Elucidation of the best fitting inhibition model was achieved by comparing correlation coefficients and the sum of the square of the errors (SSE) from each inhibition model. Results confirmed the utility of the enzyme/DNA biosensor for metabolic inhibition studies. A simple competitive inhibition model best approximated the data for imidazole, imidazole-4-acetic acid and sulconazole with K(I)* of 268.2, 142.3, and 204.2 microM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic O. Hull
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science, 55 N. Eagleville Road, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269
| | - Besnik Bajrami
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science, 55 N. Eagleville Road, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269
| | - Ingela Jansson
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032
| | - John B. Schenkman
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032
| | - James F. Rusling
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science, 55 N. Eagleville Road, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032
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Krishnan S, Hvastkovs EG, Bajrami B, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Human cyt P450 mediated metabolic toxicity of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) evaluated using electrochemiluminescent arrays. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2008; 5:163-9. [PMID: 19156262 DOI: 10.1039/b815910f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemiluminescent (ECL) arrays containing polymer ([Ru(bpy)(2)(PVP)(10)](2+), PVP = polyvinylpyridine), DNA, and selected enzymes were employed to elucidate cytochrome (cyt) P450 dependent metabolism of the tobacco specific carcinogen, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). Bioactivated NNK metabolites formed upon H(2)O(2)-enzymatic activation were captured as DNA adducts and detected simultaneously from 36 spot arrays by capturing and quantifying emitted ECL with an overhead CCD camera. Increased ECL emission was dependent on NNK exposure time. Of the enzymes tested, the activity toward NNK bioactivation was cyt P450 1A2 > 2E1 > 1B1 approximately chloroperoxidase (CPO) > myoglobin (Mb) in accordance with reported in vivo studies. Cyt P450/polyion films were also immobilized on 500 nm diameter silica nanospheres for product analysis by LC-MS. Analysis of the nanosphere film reaction media provided ECL array validation and quantitation of the bioactivated NNK hydrolysis product 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (HPB) confirming production of reactive metabolites in the films. Chemical screening in this fashion allows rapid clarification of enzymes responsible for genotoxic activation as well as offering insight into cyt P450-related toxicity and mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3060, USA
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Li H, Liu X, Niu W, Zhu S, Fan L, Shi L, Xu G. CEC with tris(2,2′-bipyridyl) ruthenium(II) electrochemiluminescent detection. Electrophoresis 2008; 29:4475-81. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200800088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Bajrami B, Krishnan S, Rusling JF. Microsome biocolloids for rapid drug metabolism and inhibition assessment by LC-MS. Drug Metab Lett 2008; 2:158-62. [PMID: 19356087 PMCID: PMC3473178 DOI: 10.2174/187231208785425854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Rat liver microsomes attached to nanoparticles were used for LC-MS studies of CYP3A and 2E1 enzymes in metabolism of N-nitroso compounds. Using these biocolloids, turnover rates were measured within 2 min. Inhibitor IC(50) values for ketoconazole (KET) and 4-methylpyrazole (4-MEP) were estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Besnik Bajrami
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060
| | - Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060
| | - James F. Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, U. S. A
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So M, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Electrochemical biosensor featuring a two-enzyme pathway and DNA for screening toxic reactive metabolites of arylamines. Chem Commun (Camb) 2008:4354-6. [PMID: 18802568 DOI: 10.1039/b805447a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate for the first time a biosensor featuring a sequential two-enzyme pathway suitable to screen potentially toxic reactive metabolites generated during metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minjeong So
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, USA
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Krishnan S, Hvastkovs EG, Bajrami B, Choudhary D, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Synergistic metabolic toxicity screening using microsome/DNA electrochemiluminescent arrays and nanoreactors. Anal Chem 2008; 80:5279-85. [PMID: 18563913 PMCID: PMC3483639 DOI: 10.1021/ac800763r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Platforms based on thin enzyme/DNA films were used in two-tier screening of chemicals for reactive metabolites capable of producing toxicity. Microsomes were used for the first time as sources of cytochrome (cyt) P450 enzymes in these devices. Initial rapid screening involved electrochemiluminescent (ECL) arrays featuring spots containing ruthenium poly(vinylpyridine), DNA, and rat liver microsomes or bicistronically expressed human cyt P450 2E1 (h2E1). Cyt P450 enzymes were activated via the NADPH/reductase cycle. When bioactivation of substrates in the films gives reactive metabolites, they are trapped by covalent attachment to DNA bases. The rate of increase in ECL with enzyme reaction time reflects relative DNA damage rates. "Toxic hits" uncovered by the array were studied in structural detail by using enzyme/DNA films on silica nanospheres as "nanoreactors" to provide nucleobase adducts from reactive metabolites. The utility of this synergistic approach was demonstrated by estimating relative DNA damage rates of three mutagenic N-nitroso compounds and styrene. Relative enzyme turnover rates for these compounds using ECL arrays and LC-UV-MS correlated well with TD 50 values for liver tumor formation in rats. Combining ECL array and nanoreactor/LC-MS technologies has the potential for rapid, high-throughput, cost-effective screening for reactive metabolites and provides chemical structure information that is complementary to conventional toxicity bioassays.
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Zhang Y, Zhang H, Hu N. Using exonuclease III to enhance electrochemical detection of natural DNA damage in layered films. Biosens Bioelectron 2008; 23:1077-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2007] [Revised: 09/30/2007] [Accepted: 10/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Rusling JF, Hvastkovs EG, Hull DO, Schenkman JB. Biochemical applications of ultrathin films of enzymes, polyions and DNA. Chem Commun (Camb) 2008:141-54. [PMID: 18092072 PMCID: PMC3473181 DOI: 10.1039/b709121b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This feature article summarizes recent applications of ultrathin films of enzymes and DNA assembled layer-by-layer (LbL). Using examples mainly from our own research, we focus on systems developed for biocatalysis and biosensors for toxicity screening. Enzyme-poly(L-lysine) (PLL) films, especially when stabilized by crosslinking, can be used for biocatalysis at unprecedented high temperatures or in acidic or basic solutions on electrodes or sub-micron sized beads. Such films have bright prospects for chiral synthesis and biofuel cells. Excellent bioactivity and retention of enzyme structure in these films facilitates their use in detailed kinetic studies. Biosensors and arrays employing DNA-enzyme films show great promise in predicting genotoxicity of new drug and chemical product candidates. These devices combine metabolic biocatalysis, reactive metabolite-DNA reactions, and DNA damage detection. Catalytic voltammetry or electrochemiluminescence (ECL) can be used for high throughput arrays utilizing multiple LbL "spots" of DNA, enzyme and metallopolymer. DNA-enzyme films can also be used to produce nucleobase adduct toxicity biomarkers for detection by LC-MS. These approaches provide valuable high throughput tools for drug and chemical product development and toxicity prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
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Krishnan S, Rusling JF. Thin film voltammetry of metabolic enzymes in rat liver microsomes. Electrochem commun 2007; 9:2359-2363. [PMID: 18037986 PMCID: PMC2083652 DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We report herein thin film voltammetry and kinetics of electron transfer for redox proteins in rat liver microsomes for the first time. Films were made layer-by-layer from liver microsomes and polycations on pyrolytic graphite electrodes. Cyclic voltammograms were chemically reversible with a midpoint potential of -0.48 V vs SCE at 0.1 V s(-1) in pH 7.0 phosphate buffer. Reduction peak potentials shifted negative at higher scan rates, and oxidation-reduction peak current ratios were approximately 1 consistent with non-ideal quasireversible thin film voltammetry. Analysis of oxidation-reduction peak separations gave an average apparent surface electron transfer rate constant of 30 s(-1). Absence of significant electrocatalytic reduction of O(2) or H(2)O(2) and lack of shift in midpoint potential when CO is added that indicates lack of an iron heme cofactor suggest that peaks can be attributed to oxidoreductases present in the microsomes rather than cytochrome P450 enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT 06269-3060, USA
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