Covalent Functionalization of Organic Nanoparticles Using Aryl Diazonium Chemistry and Their Solvent-Dependent Self-Assembly

A simple method for covalent functionalization of Fréchet-type dendron nanoparticles (FDNs) using tris-bipyridylruthenium(II) is described. Covalent functionalization is achieved by chemically reducing the diazo derivative of a ruthenium(II)bipyridine complex in the presence of FDNs wherein the radical species generated gets covalently linked to the nanoparticle surface. Simplicity, rapidity, and robustness are the advantages offered by the present approach. The nanoparticles, post functionalization, were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and infrared, energy-dispersive X-ray, UV-visible, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic techniques. Depending on the solvent, the ruthenium complex-linked FDN displays a range of morphologies, including nanoparticles, fiber-networks, and nanocapsules. In the nanocapsules and fiber-networks observed in organic solvents, the ruthenium complex is confined within the interior domain of the aggregate, whereas in the nanoparticles observed in water, it is present on the periphery. The formation of predictable morphologies in different solvents plays a key role in using such self-assembled structures for various applications such as sensing, catalysis, and light harvesting. Characterization of these nanoaggregates using different spectroscopic and microscopic techniques is also described.

Surface Functionalization of Metal Nanoparticles by Conjugated Metal-Ligand Interfacial Bonds: Impacts on Intraparticle Charge Transfer

Noble metal nanoparticles represent a unique class of functional nanomaterials with physical and chemical properties that deviate markedly from those of their atomic and bulk forms. In order to stabilize the nanoparticles and further manipulate the materials properties, surface functionalization with organic molecules has been utilized as a powerful tool. Among those, mercapto derivatives have been used extensively as the ligands of choice for nanoparticle surface functionalization by taking advantage of the strong affinity of thiol moieties to transition metal surfaces forming (polar) metal-thiolate linkages. Yet, the nanoparticle material properties are generally discussed within the context of the two structural components, the metal cores and the organic capping layers, whereas the impacts of the metal-sulfur interfacial bonds are largely ignored because of the lack of interesting chemistry. In recent years, it has been found that metal nanoparticles may also be functionalized by stable metal-carbon (or even -nitrogen) covalent bonds. Because of the formation of dπ-pπ interactions between the transition-metal nanoparticles and terminal carbon moieties, the interfacial resistance at the metal-ligand interface is markedly reduced, leading to the emergence of unprecedented optical and electronic properties. In this Account, we summarize recent progress in the studies of metal nanoparticles functionalized by conjugated metal-ligand interfacial bonds that include metal-carbene (M═C) and metal-acetylide (M-C≡)/metal-vinylidene (M═C═C) bonds. Such interfacial bonds are readily formed by ligand self-assembly onto nanoparticle metal cores. The resulting nanoparticles exhibit apparent intraparticle charge delocalization between the particle-bound functional moieties, leading to the emergence of optical and electronic properties that are analogous to those of their dimeric counterparts, as manifested in spectroscopic and electrochemical measurements. This is first highlighted by ferrocene-functionalized nanoparticles that exhibit nanoparticle-mediated intervalence charge transfer (IVCT) among the particle-bound ferrocenyl moieties, as manifested in electrochemical and spectroscopic measurements. Such intraparticle charge delocalization has also been observed with other functional moieties such as pyrene and anthracene, where the photoluminescence emissions are consistent with those of their dimeric derivatives. Importantly, as such electronic communication occurs via a through-bond pathway, it may be readily manipulated by the valence states of the nanoparticle cores as well as specific binding of selective molecules/ions to the organic capping shells. These fundamental insights may be exploited for diverse applications, ranging from chemical sensing to (nano)electronics and fuel cell electrochemistry. Several examples are included, such as sensitive detection of nitroaromatic derivatives, metal cations, and fluoride anions by fluorophore-functionalized metal nanoparticles, fabrication of nanoparticle-bridged molecular dyads by, for instance, using nanoparticles cofunctionalized with 4-ethynyl-N,N-diphenyl-aniline (electron donor) and 9-vinylanthracene (electron acceptor), and enhanced electrocatalytic activity of acetylene derivatives-functionalized metal/alloy nanoparticles for oxygen reduction reaction by manipulation of the metal core electron density and hence interactions with reaction intermediates. We conclude this Account with a perspective where inspiration from conventional organometallic chemistry may be exploited for more complicated nanoparticle surface functionalization through the formation of diverse metal-nonmetal bonds. This is a unique platform for ready manipulation of nanoparticle properties and applications.

Functionalization of nanomaterials with aryldiazonium salts

This paper reviews the surface modification strategies of a wide range of nanomaterials using aryldiazonium salts. After a brief history of diazonium salts since their discovery by Peter Griess in 1858, we will tackle the surface chemistry using these compounds since the first trials in the 1950s. We will then focus on the modern surface chemistry of aryldiazonium salts for the modification of materials, particularly metallic, semiconductors, metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon-based nanostructures, diamond and clays. The successful modification of sp(2) carbon materials and metals by aryldiazonium salts paved the way to innovative strategies for the attachment of aryl layers to metal oxide nanoparticles and nanodiamonds, and intercalation of clays. Interestingly, diazotized surfaces can easily trap nanoparticles and nanotubes while diazotized nanoparticles can be (electro)chemically reduced on electrode/materials surfaces as molecular compounds. Both strategies provided organized 2D surface assembled nanoparticles. In this review, aryldiazonium salts are highlighted as efficient coupling agents for many types of molecular, macromolecular and nanoparticulate species, therefore ensuring stability to colloids on the one hand, and the construction of composite materials and hybrid systems with robust and durable interfaces/interphases, on the other hand. The last section is dedicated to a selection of patents and industrial products based on aryldiazonium-modified nanomaterials. After nearly 160 years of organic chemistry, diazonium salts have entered a new, long and thriving era for the benefit of materials, colloids, and surface scientists. This tempts us to introduce the terminology of "diazonics" we define as the science and technology of aryldiazonium salt-derived materials.

Pt Diffusion Dynamics for the Formation Cr-Pt Core-Shell Nanoparticles

Layered core-shell bimetallic Cr-Pt nanoparticles were prepared by the formation and later reduction of an intermediate Pt-ion-containing supramolecular complex onto preformed Cr nanoparticles. The resultant nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy. The results are consistent with the presence of Pt diffusion during or after bimetallic nanoparticle formation, which has resulted in a Pt/Cr-alloyed core and shell. We postulate that such Pt diffusion occurs by an electric-field-assisted process according to Cabrera-Mott theory and that it originates from the low work function of the preformed oxygen-defective Cr nanoparticles and the rather large electron affinity of Pt.

The convenient preparation of stable aryl-coated zerovalent iron nanoparticles

A novel approach for the in situ synthesis of zerovalent aryl-coated iron nanoparticles (NPs) based on diazonium salt chemistry is proposed. Surface-modified zerovalent iron NPs (ZVI NPs) were prepared by simple chemical reduction of iron(III) chloride aqueous solution followed by in situ modification using water soluble arenediazonium tosylate. The resulting NPs, with average iron core diameter of 21 nm, were coated with a 10 nm thick organic layer to provide long-term protection in air for the highly reactive zerovalent iron core up to 180 °C. The surface-modified iron NPs possess a high grafting density of the aryl group on the NPs surface of 1.23 mmol/g. FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, HRTEM, TGA/DTA, and elemental analysis were performed in order to characterize the resulting material.

Responses of RAW264.7 macrophages to water-dispersible gold and silver nanoparticles stabilized by metal-carbon σ-bonds

Nanometals are currently receiving considerable attention for industrial and biomedical applications, but their potentially hazardous and toxic effects have not been extensively studied. This study evaluated the biological responses of novel water-dispersible gold (Au-NPs) and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) stabilized by Au-C or Ag-C σ-bonds in cultured macrophages (RAW264.7), via analysis of the cell viability, the integrity of the plasma membrane, and the inflammatory and morphological properties. The cultured RAW264.7 was exposed to metal-NPs at various concentrations. The Ag-NPs showed cytotoxicity at high NP concentrations, but the cytotoxic effects of the Au-NPs were smaller than those of the Ag-NPs. For the microscopic analysis, both types of particles were internalized into cells, the morphological changes in the cells which manifested as an expansion of the vesicles' volume, were smaller for the Au-NPs compared with the Ag-NPs. For the Ag-NPs, the endocytosis abilities of the macrophages might have induced harmful effects, because of the expansion of the cell vesicles. Although an inflammatory response was observed for both the Au- and Ag-NPs, the harmful effects of the Au-NPs were smaller than those of the Ag-NPs, with minor morphological changes observed even after internalization of the NPs into the cells.

Electronic conductivity of alkyne-capped ruthenium nanoparticles

Ruthenium nanoparticles (2.12 ± 0.72 nm in diameter) were stabilized by the self-assembly of alkyne molecules (from 1-hexyne to 1-hexadecyne) onto the Ru surface by virtue of the formation of Ru-vinylidene interfacial linkages. Infrared measurements depicted three vibrational bands at 2050 cm(-1), 1980 cm(-1) and 1950 cm(-1), which were ascribed to the vibrational stretches of the terminal triple bonds that were bound onto the nanoparticle surface. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that there were about 65 to 96 alkyne ligands per nanoparticle (depending on the ligand chainlength), corresponding to a molecular footprint of 20 to 15 Å(2). This suggests that the ligands likely adopted a head-on configuration on the nanoparticle surface, consistent with a vinylidene bonding linkage due to interfacial tautomeric rearrangements. With this conjugated interfacial bonding interaction, electronic conductivity measurements of the corresponding nanoparticle solid films showed that the nanoparticles all exhibited linear current-potential curves within the potential range of -0.8 V to +0.8 V at varied temperatures (200 to 300 K). The ohmic characters were partly ascribed to the spilling of core electrons into the organic capping layer that facilitated interparticle charge transfer. Furthermore, based on the temperature dependence of the nanoparticle electronic conductivity, the activation energy for interparticle charge transfer was estimated to be in the range of 70 to 90 meV and significantly, the coupling coefficient (β) was found to be 0.31 Å(-1) for nanoparticles stabilized by short-chain alkynes (1-hexyne, 1-octyne, and 1-decyne), and 1.44 Å(-1) for those with long alkynes such as 1-dodecyne, 1-tetradecyne, and 1-hexadecyne. This may be accounted for by the relative contributions of the conjugated metal-ligand interfacial bonding interactions versus the saturated aliphatic backbones of the alkyne ligands to the control of interparticle charge transfer.

Diazonium-derived aryl films on gold nanoparticles: evidence for a carbon-gold covalent bond

Tailoring the surface chemistry of metallic nanoparticles is generally a key step for their use in a wide range of applications. There are few examples of organic films covalently bound to metal nanoparticles. We demonstrate here that aryl films are formed on gold nanoparticles from the spontaneous reduction of diazonium salts. The structure and the bonding of the film is probed with surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Extinction spectroscopy and SERS show that a nitrobenzene film forms on gold nanoparticles from the corresponding diazonium salt. Comparison of the SERS spectrum with spectra computed from density functional theory models reveals a band characteristic of a Au-C stretch. The observation of this stretch is direct evidence of a covalent bond. A similar band is observed in high-resolution electron energy loss spectra of nitrobenzene layers on planar gold. The bonding of these types of films through a covalent interaction on gold is consistent with their enhanced stability observed in other studies. These findings provide motivation for the use of diazonium-derived films on gold and other metals in applications where high stability and/or strong adsorbate-substrate coupling are required.

Photoluminescence and conductivity studies of anthracene-functionalized ruthenium nanoparticles

Carbene-stabilized ruthenium nanoparticles were functionalized with anthryl moieties by olefin metathesis reactions with 9-vinylanthracene, at a surface concentration of about 19.7%, as estimated by (1)H NMR spectroscopic measurements. Because of the conjugated metal-ligand interfacial bonding interactions, UV-vis measurements of the resulting nanoparticles showed a new broad absorption band centered at 612 nm, in addition to the peaks observed with monomeric vinylanthracene. FTIR measurements depicted apparent red-shifts of the aromatic vibrational stretches as compared to those of the monomeric vinylanthracene, suggestive of decreasing bonding order of the aromatic moieties as a result of extended conjugation between the particle-bound anthracene groups. Photoluminescence measurements confirmed the notion that effective intraparticle charge delocalization occurred by virtue of the conjugated metal-ligand interfacial bonding interactions, with apparent red-shifts of the excitation peaks and blue-shifts of the emission features, as compared to those of the monomeric vinylanthracene. The diminishment of the Stokes shift was, at least in part, attributed to the different chemical environments surrounding the anthryl moieties on the nanoparticle surface. Electronic conductivity measurements showed that because of the conjugated Ru[double bond, length as m-dash]C π bonds, the activation energy for interparticle charge transport was about one order of magnitude lower than that observed with particles passivated by alkanethiolates. Additionally, whereas the original carbene-stabilized nanoparticles exhibited a semiconductor-metal transition within the temperature range of 100 to 320 K, anthracene-functionalized nanoparticles displayed apparent semiconducting behaviors with the ensemble conductivity increasing monotonically with temperature, most likely due to the disordering within the nanoparticle solids that arose from the different structures of the carbene ligands and anthryl moieties. These studies indicate that anthracene functionalization may be exploited as an effective route towards the manipulation of nanoparticle optoelectronic properties.

Electrocatalytic oxygen reduction on functionalized gold nanoparticles incorporated in a hydrophobic environment

The electrocatalytic properties of gold nanoparticles covalently capped with a monolayer film of 1,4-decylphenyl groups for oxygen reduction in an alkaline solution have been studied. Functionalized nanoparticles were adsorbed on a film of the same capping ligand previously grafted to a glassy carbon electrode. The molecular film-nanoparticle assembly was characterized by cyclic voltammetry and XPS. It is shown that although the attachment of the capping ligand to the electrode surface blocks direct electron transfer, the metal centers of the incorporated nanoparticles provide sites for electron tunneling from the electrode surface thus leading to sites where oxygen reduction can take place. Rotating disk voltammetry shows that the oxygen reduction reaction follows mainly a peroxide formation channel on these nanostructured surfaces. The capping ligand greatly influences the reduction mechanism by establishing a local hydrophobic environment at the reaction centers within the film.