1
|
O’Connor MJ, Beebe LL, Deodato D, Ball RE, Page AT, VanLeuven AJ, Harris KT, Park S, Hariharan V, Lauderdale JD, Dore TM. Bypassing Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase 1 (Gad1) Induced Craniofacial Defects with a Photoactivatable Translation Blocker Morpholino. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:266-278. [PMID: 30200754 PMCID: PMC6337688 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
![]()
γ-Amino
butyric acid (GABA) mediated signaling is critical
in the central and enteric nervous systems, pancreas, lungs, and other
tissues. It is associated with many neurological disorders and craniofacial
development. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) synthesizes GABA from
glutamate, and knockdown of the gad1 gene results
in craniofacial defects that are lethal in zebrafish. To bypass this
and enable observation of the neurological defects resulting from
knocking down gad1 expression, a photoactivatable
morpholino oligonucleotide (MO) against gad1 was
prepared by cyclization with a photocleavable linker rendering the
MO inactive. The cyclized MO was stable in the dark and toward degradative
enzymes and was completely linearized upon brief exposure to 405 nm
light. In the course of investigating the function of the ccMOs in
zebrafish, we discovered that zebrafish possess paralogous gad1 genes, gad1a and gad1b. A gad1b MO injected at the 1–4 cell stage
caused severe morphological defects in head development, which could
be bypassed, enabling the fish to develop normally, if the fish were
injected with a photoactivatable, cyclized gad1b MO
and grown in the dark. At 1 day post fertilization (dpf), light activation
of the gad1b MO followed by observation at 3 and
7 dpf led to increased and abnormal electrophysiological brain activity
compared to wild type animals. The photocleavable linker can be used
to cyclize and inactivate any MO, and represents a general strategy
to parse the function of developmentally important genes in a spatiotemporal
manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. O’Connor
- New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Lindsey L. Beebe
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Davide Deodato
- New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Rebecca E. Ball
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - A. Tyler Page
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Ariel J. VanLeuven
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Kyle T. Harris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602 United States
| | - Sungdae Park
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Vani Hariharan
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - James D. Lauderdale
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
- Neuroscience
Division
of the Biomedical and Health Sciences Institute, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Timothy M. Dore
- New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602 United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Itakura Y, Kohsaka H, Ohyama T, Zlatic M, Pulver SR, Nose A. Identification of Inhibitory Premotor Interneurons Activated at a Late Phase in a Motor Cycle during Drosophila Larval Locomotion. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136660. [PMID: 26335437 PMCID: PMC4559423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhythmic motor patterns underlying many types of locomotion are thought to be produced by central pattern generators (CPGs). Our knowledge of how CPG networks generate motor patterns in complex nervous systems remains incomplete, despite decades of work in a variety of model organisms. Substrate borne locomotion in Drosophila larvae is driven by waves of muscular contraction that propagate through multiple body segments. We use the motor circuitry underlying crawling in larval Drosophila as a model to try to understand how segmentally coordinated rhythmic motor patterns are generated. Whereas muscles, motoneurons and sensory neurons have been well investigated in this system, far less is known about the identities and function of interneurons. Our recent study identified a class of glutamatergic premotor interneurons, PMSIs (period-positive median segmental interneurons), that regulate the speed of locomotion. Here, we report on the identification of a distinct class of glutamatergic premotor interneurons called Glutamatergic Ventro-Lateral Interneurons (GVLIs). We used calcium imaging to search for interneurons that show rhythmic activity and identified GVLIs as interneurons showing wave-like activity during peristalsis. Paired GVLIs were present in each abdominal segment A1-A7 and locally extended an axon towards a dorsal neuropile region, where they formed GRASP-positive putative synaptic contacts with motoneurons. The interneurons expressed vesicular glutamate transporter (vGluT) and thus likely secrete glutamate, a neurotransmitter known to inhibit motoneurons. These anatomical results suggest that GVLIs are premotor interneurons that locally inhibit motoneurons in the same segment. Consistent with this, optogenetic activation of GVLIs with the red-shifted channelrhodopsin, CsChrimson ceased ongoing peristalsis in crawling larvae. Simultaneous calcium imaging of the activity of GVLIs and motoneurons showed that GVLIs’ wave-like activity lagged behind that of motoneurons by several segments. Thus, GVLIs are activated when the front of a forward motor wave reaches the second or third anterior segment. We propose that GVLIs are part of the feedback inhibition system that terminates motor activity once the front of the motor wave proceeds to anterior segments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Itakura
- Department of Complexity Science and Engineering Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kohsaka
- Department of Complexity Science and Engineering Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ohyama
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Marta Zlatic
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Stefan R Pulver
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Akinao Nose
- Department of Complexity Science and Engineering Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan; Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gerety SS, Breau MA, Sasai N, Xu Q, Briscoe J, Wilkinson DG. An inducible transgene expression system for zebrafish and chick. Development 2013; 140:2235-43. [PMID: 23633515 DOI: 10.1242/dev.091520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have generated an inducible system to control the timing of transgene expression in zebrafish and chick. An estrogen receptor variant (ERT2) fused to the GAL4 transcriptional activator rapidly and robustly activates transcription within 3 hours of treatment with the drug 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen (4-OHT) in tissue culture and transgenic zebrafish. We have generated a broadly expressed inducible ERT2-GAL4 zebrafish line using the ubiquitin (ubi) enhancer. In addition, use of ERT2-GAL4 in conjunction with tissue-specific enhancers enables the control of transgene expression in both space and time. This spatial restriction and the ability to sustain forced expression are important advantages over the currently used heat-shock promoters. Moreover, in contrast to currently available TET and LexA systems, which require separate constructs with their own unique recognition sequences, ERT2-GAL4 is compatible with the growing stock of UAS lines being generated in the community. We also applied the same inducible system to the chick embryo and find that it is fully functional, suggesting that this strategy is generally applicable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian S Gerety
- MRC National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
The nuclear receptors (NRs) of metazoans are an ancient family of transcription factors defined by conserved DNA- and ligand-binding domains (DBDs and LBDs, respectively). The Drosophila melanogaster genome project revealed 18 canonical NRs (with DBDs and LBDs both present) and 3 receptors with the DBD only. Annotation of subsequently sequenced insect genomes revealed only minor deviations from this pattern. A renewed focus on functional analysis of the isoforms of insect NRs is therefore required to understand the diverse roles of these transcription factors in embryogenesis, metamorphosis, reproduction, and homeostasis. One insect NR, ecdysone receptor (EcR), functions as a receptor for the ecdysteroid molting hormones of insects. Researchers have developed nonsteroidal ecdysteroid agonists for EcR that disrupt molting and can be used as safe pesticides. An exciting new technology allows EcR to be used in chimeric, ligand-inducible gene-switch systems with applications in pest management and medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Fahrbach
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gerety SS, Wilkinson DG. Morpholino artifacts provide pitfalls and reveal a novel role for pro-apoptotic genes in hindbrain boundary development. Dev Biol 2010; 350:279-89. [PMID: 21145318 PMCID: PMC3111810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Revised: 11/02/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MOs) are widely used as a tool to achieve loss of gene function, but many have off-target effects mediated by activation of Tp53 and associated apoptosis. Here, we re-examine our previous MO-based loss-of-function studies that had suggested that Wnt1 expressed at hindbrain boundaries in zebrafish promotes neurogenesis and inhibits boundary marker gene expression in the adjacent para-boundary regions. We find that Tp53 is highly activated and apoptosis is frequently induced by the MOs used in these studies. Co-knockdown of Tp53 rescues the decrease in proneural and neuronal marker expression, which is thus an off-target effect of MOs. While loss of gene expression can be attributed to cell loss through apoptotic cell death, surprisingly we find that the ectopic expression of hindbrain boundary markers is also dependent on Tp53 activity and its downstream apoptotic effectors. We examine whether this non-specific activation of hindbrain boundary gene expression provides insight into the endogenous mechanisms underlying boundary cell specification. We find that the pro-apoptotic Bcl genes puma and bax-a are required for hindbrain boundary marker expression, and that gain of function of the Bcl-caspase pathway leads to ectopic boundary marker expression. These data reveal a non-apoptotic role for pro-apoptotic genes in the regulation of gene expression at hindbrain boundaries. In light of these findings, we discuss the precautions needed in performing morpholino knockdowns and in interpreting the data derived from their use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian S Gerety
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Genetics of photoreceptor degeneration and regeneration in zebrafish. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 68:651-9. [PMID: 20972813 PMCID: PMC3029675 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0563-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 09/09/2010] [Accepted: 10/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Zebrafish are unique in that they provide a useful model system for studying two critically important problems in retinal neurobiology, the mechanisms responsible for triggering photoreceptor cell death and the innate stem cell–mediated regenerative response elicited by this death. In this review we highlight recent seminal findings in these two fields. We first focus on zebrafish as a model for studying photoreceptor degeneration. We summarize the genes currently known to cause photoreceptor degeneration, and we describe the phenotype of a few zebrafish mutants in detail, highlighting the usefulness of this model for studying this process. In the second section, we discuss the several different experimental paradigms that are available to study regeneration in the teleost retina. A model outlining the sequence of gene expression starting from the dedifferentiation of Müller glia to the formation of rod and cone precursors is presented.
Collapse
|
7
|
Hsu CC, Hou MF, Hong JR, Wu JL, Her GM. Inducible male infertility by targeted cell ablation in zebrafish testis. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2010; 12:466-478. [PMID: 19936986 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-009-9248-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
To generate a zebrafish model of inducible male sterility, we expressed an Escherichia coli nitroreductase (Ntr) gene in the male germ line of zebrafish. The Ntr gene encodes an enzyme that can convert prodrugs such as metronidazole (Met) to cytotoxins. A fusion protein eGFP:Ntr (fusing Ntr to eGFP) under control of approximately 2 kb putative promoters of the zebrafish testis-specific genes, A-kinase anchoring protein-associated protein (Asp), outer dense fibers (Odf), and sperm acrosomal membrane-associated protein (Sam) was expressed in the male germ line. Three independent and four compound transgenic zebrafish lines expressing eGFP:Ntr were established. Female carriers were fertile, while males exhibited different levels of sterility and appeared normal, otherwise. Developmental analysis shows that germ cells survived and testes were normal before Met treatment, but that the testes of all male transgenic zebrafish exhibited variously depleted prospermatogonia after Met treatment. Particularly in a triple-transgenic line, Tg(AOS-eGFP:Ntr)[Tg(Asp-eGFP:Ntr; Odf-eGFP:Ntr; Sam-eGFP:Ntr)], the transgenic males had very small testes that were virtually devoid of germ cells, and the residual germ cells had almost completely disappeared after 2 weeks of Met treatment. These zebrafish transgenic lines show the complete testis specificity of inducible male sterility after Met treatment and reveal a period of the Ntr/Met ablation activity just prior to formation of the definitive adult spermatogonial cell population. This study demonstrates that combined genetic and pharmacological methods for developing an "infertile breeding technology" have practical application in controlling genetically modified (GM) fish breeding and meet the standards of biological and environment safety for other GM species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Chun Hsu
- Department of Radiology, Tri-Service General Hospital, 325, Cheng-Kung Road Sec. 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Fleming A, Jankowski J, Goldsmith P. In vivo analysis of gut function and disease changes in a zebrafish larvae model of inflammatory bowel disease: a feasibility study. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2010; 16:1162-72. [PMID: 20128011 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to develop a model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in zebrafish larvae, together with a method for the rapid assessment of gut morphology and function in vivo thereby enabling medium-throughput compound screening. METHODS Assays were performed using larval zebrafish from 3-8 days postfertilization (d.p.f.) in 96-well plates. Gut morphology and peristalsis were observed in vivo using fluorescent imaging following ingestion of fluorescent dyes. IBD was induced by addition of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) to the medium within the well. Pathology was assessed in vivo using fluorescent imaging and postmortem by histology, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy. Therapeutic compounds were evaluated by coadministration with TNBS. RESULTS A novel method of investigating gut architecture and peristalsis was devised using fluorescent imaging of live zebrafish larvae. Archetypal changes in gut architecture consistent with colitis were observed throughout the gut. Significant changes in goblet cell number and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) antibody staining were used to quantify disease severity and rescue. Prednisolone and 5-amino salicylic acid treatment ameliorated the disease changes. Candidate therapeutic compounds (NOS inhibitors, thalidomide, and parthenolide) were assessed and a dissociation was observed between efficacy assessed using a single biochemical measure (TNF-alpha staining) versus an assessment of the entire disease state. CONCLUSIONS Gut physiology and pathology relevant to human disease state can be rapidly modeled in zebrafish larvae. The model is suitable for medium-throughput chemical screens and is amenable to genetic manipulation, hence offers a powerful novel premammalian adjunct to the study of gastrointestinal disease.
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Current high-throughput screening methods for drug discovery rely on the existence of targets. Moreover, most of the hits generated during screenings turn out to be invalid after further testing in animal models. To by-pass these limitations, efforts are now being made to screen chemical libraries on whole animals. One of the most commonly used animal model in biology is the murine model Mus musculus. However, its cost limit its use in large-scale therapeutic screening. In contrast, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and the fish Danio rerio are gaining momentum as screening tools. These organisms combine genetic amenability, low cost and culture conditions that are compatible with large-scale screens. Their main advantage is to allow high-throughput screening in a whole-animal context. Moreover, their use is not dependent on the prior identification of a target and permits the selection of compounds with an improved safety profile. This review surveys the versatility of these animal models for drug discovery and discuss the options available at this day.
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Experimental animal models are extremely valuable for the study of human diseases, especially those with underlying genetic components. The exploitation of various animal models, from fruitflies to mice, has led to major advances in our understanding of the etiologies of many diseases, including cancer. Cutaneous malignant melanoma is a form of cancer for which both environmental insult (i.e., UV) and hereditary predisposition are major causative factors. Fish melanoma models have been used in studies of both spontaneous and induced melanoma formation. Genetic hybrids between platyfish and swordtails, different species of the genus Xiphophorus, have been studied since the 1920s to identify genetic determinants of pigmentation and melanoma formation. Recently, transgenesis has been used to develop zebrafish and medaka models for melanoma research. This review will provide a historical perspective on the use of fish models in melanoma research, and an updated summary of current and prospective studies using these unique experimental systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Elizabeth Patton
- Institute for Genetics and Molecular Medicine, MRC Human Genetics Unit and Division of Cancer Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Host-microbe interactions in the developing zebrafish. Curr Opin Immunol 2010; 22:10-9. [PMID: 20153622 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2010.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Revised: 01/08/2010] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The amenability of the zebrafish to in vivo imaging and genetic analysis has fueled expanded use of this vertebrate model to investigate the molecular and cellular foundations of host-microbe relationships. Study of microbial encounters in zebrafish hosts has concentrated on developing embryonic and larval stages, when the advantages of the zebrafish model are maximized. A comprehensive understanding of these host-microbe interactions requires appreciation of the developmental context into which a microbe is introduced, as well as the effects of that microbial challenge on host ontogeny. In this review, we discuss how in vivo imaging and genetic analysis in zebrafish has advanced our knowledge of host-microbe interactions in the context of a developing vertebrate host. We focus on recent insights into immune cell ontogeny and function, commensal microbial relationships in the intestine, and microbial pathogenesis in zebrafish hosts.
Collapse
|
12
|
Suehiro Y, Yasuda A, Okuyama T, Imada H, Kuroyanagi Y, Kubo T, Takeuchi H. Mass spectrometric map of neuropeptide expression and analysis of the gamma-prepro-tachykinin gene expression in the medaka (Oryzias latipes) brain. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2009; 161:138-45. [PMID: 19118555 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2008.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2008] [Revised: 11/20/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides have important roles in modulating behavioral patterns such as social interaction. With the aim to determine the presence of neuropeptides known to be involved in social interaction as well as novel peptides, we used MALDI-TOF/MS to analyze neuropeptide profiles in some medaka brain regions. In the telencephalon, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, 3, 6, and 10 peaks, respectively, were identified as neuropeptides (Arg-vasotocin [AVT], growth hormone-releasing hormone [GHRH], neuropeptide FF, substance P [SP], somatostatin-1 and -2, melanin-concentrating hormone [MCH], MCH gene-related peptide [Mgrp], melanocyte-stimulating hormone [MSH], corticotropin-like intermediate lobe peptide [CLIP], and beta-endorphin). The neuropeptide profile of telencephalon similar to that of the hypothalamus, but completely different from that of pituitary gland. For the future genetic analysis, we identified cDNAs encoding precursor proteins for the identified peptides. We also detect its expression of gamma-prepro-tachykinin gene encoding a SP precursor protein in both the telencephalon and hypothalamus. Our results indicated that the medaka brain contains some neuropeptides (AVT, SP, and somatostatins) that may be involved in modulating medaka behaviors such as social interaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Suehiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
|
14
|
Halpern ME, Rhee J, Goll MG, Akitake CM, Parsons M, Leach SD. Gal4/UAS transgenic tools and their application to zebrafish. Zebrafish 2008; 5:97-110. [PMID: 18554173 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2008.0530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to regulate gene expression in a cell-specific and temporally restricted manner provides a powerful means to test gene function, bypass the action of lethal genes, label subsets of cells for developmental studies, monitor subcellular structures, and target tissues for selective ablation or physiological analyses. The galactose-inducible system of yeast, mediated by the transcriptional activator Gal4 and its consensus UAS binding site, has proven to be a highly successful and versatile system for controlling transcriptional activation in Drosophila. It has also been used effectively, albeit in a more limited manner, in the mouse. While zebrafish has lagged behind other model systems in the widespread application of Gal4 transgenic approaches to modulate gene activity during development, recent technological advances are permitting rapid progress. Here we review Gal4-regulated genetic tools and discuss how they have been used in zebrafish as well as their potential drawbacks. We describe some exciting new directions, in large part afforded by the Tol2 transposition system, that are generating valuable new Gal4/UAS reagents for zebrafish research.
Collapse
|