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Tribondeau A, Sachs LM, Buisine N. Tetrabromobisphenol A effects on differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells reveals unexpected impact on immune system. Front Genet 2022; 13:996826. [PMID: 36386828 PMCID: PMC9640982 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.996826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is a potent flame retardant used in numerous appliances and a major pollutant in households and ecosystems. In vertebrates, it was shown to affect neurodevelopment, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and thyroid signaling, but its toxicity and modes of actions are still a matter of debate. The molecular phenotype resulting from exposure to TBBPA is only poorly described, especially at the level of transcriptome reprogramming, which further limits our understanding of its molecular toxicity. In this work, we combined functional genomics and system biology to provide a system-wide description of the transcriptomic alterations induced by TBBPA acting on differentiating mESCs, and provide potential new toxicity markers. We found that TBBPA-induced transcriptome reprogramming affect a large collection of genes loosely connected within the network of biological pathways, indicating widespread interferences on biological processes. We also found two hotspots of action: at the level of neuronal differentiation markers, and surprisingly, at the level of immune system functions, which has been largely overlooked until now. This effect is particularly strong, as terminal differentiation markers of both myeloid and lymphoid lineages are strongly reduced: the membrane T cell receptor (Cd79a, Cd79b), interleukin seven receptor (Il7r), macrophages cytokine receptor (Csf1r), monocyte chemokine receptor (Ccr2). Also, the high affinity IgE receptor (Fcer1g), a key mediator of allergic reactions, is strongly induced. Thus, the molecular imbalance induce by TBBPA may be stronger than initially realized.
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Sunday OE, Bin H, Guanghua M, Yao C, Zhengjia Z, Xian Q, Xiangyang W, Weiwei F. Review of the environmental occurrence, analytical techniques, degradation and toxicity of TBBPA and its derivatives. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 206:112594. [PMID: 34973196 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BFRs (brominated flame retardants) are a class of compounds that are added to or applied to polymeric materials to avoid or reduce the spread of fire. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is one of the known BFR used many in industries today. Due to its wide application as an additive flame retardant in commodities, TBBPA has become a common indoor contaminant. Recent researches have raised concerns about the possible hazardous effect of exposure to TBBPA and its derivatives in humans and wildlife. This review gives a thorough assessment of the literature on TBBPA and its derivatives, as well as environmental levels and human exposure. Several analytical techniques/methods have been developed for sensitive and accurate analysis of TBBPA and its derivatives in different compartments. These chemicals have been detected in practically every environmental compartment globally, making them a ubiquitous pollutant. TBBPA may be subject to adsorption, biological degradation or photolysis, photolysis after being released into the environment. Treatment of TBBPA-containing waste, as well as manufacturing and usage regulations, can limit the release of these chemicals to the environment and the health hazards associated with its exposure. Several methods have been successfully employed for the treatment of TBBPA including but not limited to adsorption, ozonation, oxidation and anaerobic degradation. Previous studies have shown that TBBPA and its derivative cause a lot of toxic effects. Diet and dust ingestion and have been identified as the main routes of TBBPA exposure in the general population, according to human exposure studies. Toddlers are more vulnerable than adults to be exposed to indoor dust through inadvertent ingestion. Furthermore, TBBP-A exposure can occur during pregnancy and through breast milk. This review will go a long way in closing up the knowledge gap on the silent and over ignored deadly effects of TBBPA and its derivatives and their attendant consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Okeke Emmanuel Sunday
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences & Natural Science Unit, SGS, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Huang Bin
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China
| | - Mao Guanghua
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China
| | - Chen Yao
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China
| | - Zeng Zhengjia
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China
| | - Qian Xian
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China
| | - Wu Xiangyang
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China.
| | - Feng Weiwei
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, 212013, PR China.
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Lukyanova ON, Tsygankov VY, Boyarova MD. Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in the Bering flounder (Hippoglossoides robustus) from the Sea of Okhotsk. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 137:152-156. [PMID: 30503421 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to establish the presence of POPs in the Bering flounder (Hippoglossoides robustus) from the Sea of Okhotsk (North-West Pacific). Concentration of OCPs (α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDE) and PCBs (28, 52, 155, 101, 118, 143, 153, 138, 180, 207) in samples were measured by GC-MS and GC-ECD. The mean OCP concentrations in flounder from East and South areas of the Sea of Okhotsk were 99.8 ± 125.4 and 53.6 ± 40.5 ng/g lipid, respectively; PCB congeners - 112 ± 94.2 and 88.8 ± 50.8 ng/g lipid, respectively. POPs in fish tissue decreased in the order: PCBs > HCHs > DDTs. Our results indicate that consumers will have no health risk due to fish consumption from Sea of Okhotsk. OCP and PCB levels in the Sea of Okhotsk may be considered as background level for the North Pacific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga N Lukyanova
- Pacific Research Fisheries Centre (TINRO-Centre), 4 Shevchenko Alley, 690091 Vladivostok, Russia; School of Natural Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, 8 Sukhanova str., 690091 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Vasiliy Yu Tsygankov
- School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, 8 Sukhanova str., 690091 Vladivostok, Russia.
| | - Margarita D Boyarova
- School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, 8 Sukhanova str., 690091 Vladivostok, Russia
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4
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NTP Research Report on Biological Activity of Bisphenol A (BPA) Structural Analogues and Functional Alternatives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.22427/ntp-rr-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Development of QuEChERS-based extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous quantification of bisphenol A and tetrabromobisphenol A in seafood: fish, bivalves, and seaweeds. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:151-160. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9980-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M. Environmental occurrence, analysis and human exposure to the flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A)-A review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 94:235-250. [PMID: 27266836 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
TBBP-A is a high production volume chemical applied widely as a flame retardant in printed circuit boards. Recent studies have raised concern over potential harmful implications of TBBP-A exposure in human and wildlife, leading to its classification under group 2A "Probably carcinogenic to humans" by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. This article provides a comprehensive review of the available literature on TBBP-A analysis, environmental levels and human exposure. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been identified as the method of choice for robust, accurate and sensitive analysis of TBBP-A in different matrices. TBBP-A has been detected in almost all environmental compartments all over the world, rendering it a ubiquitous contaminant. Human exposure studies revealed dust ingestion and diet as the major pathways of TBBP-A exposure in the general population. Toddlers are likely to be more exposed than adults via accidental indoor dust ingestion. Moreover, exposure to TBBP-A may occur prenatally and via breast milk. There are no current restrictions on the production of TBBP-A in the EU or worldwide. However, more research is required to characterise human exposure to TBBP-A in and around production facilities, as well as in e-waste recycling regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah
- Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, 71526 Assiut, Egypt.
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Antelo LT, Ordóñez-Del Pazo T, Lopes C, Franco-Uría A, Pérez-Martín RI, Alonso AA. Pollutant levels in discarded fish species by Spanish trawlers operating in the Great Sole Bank and the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 108:303-310. [PMID: 27126182 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Organic and inorganic pollutant levels were determined for the most discarded species from trawlers operating in Great Sole and Spanish coastal fishing grounds. Results for heavy metals indicated that Cd can reach values higher than legal limits for some species and tissues, while Hg and Pb concentrations are below established values. No significant variation was noticed with fishing grounds, but both season influences in the case of Pb and interspecies variation for Hg and Cd have been detected. Valorization recommendations could be therefore established according to the levels found in the different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis T Antelo
- Marine Research Institute IIM-CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Carla Lopes
- Marine Research Institute IIM-CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain
| | - Amaya Franco-Uría
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | | | - Antonio A Alonso
- Marine Research Institute IIM-CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain
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Feist SW, Stentiford GD, Kent ML, Ribeiro Santos A, Lorance P. Histopathological assessment of liver and gonad pathology in continental slope fish from the northeast Atlantic Ocean. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2015; 106:42-50. [PMID: 25756900 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The deep-sea environment is a sink for a wide variety of contaminants including heavy metals and organic compounds of anthropogenic origin. Life history traits of many deep-water fish species including longevity and high trophic position may predispose them to contaminant exposure and subsequent induction of pathological changes, including tumour formation. The lack of evidence for this hypothesis prompted this investigation in order to provide data on the presence of pathological changes in the liver and gonads of several deep-water fish species. Fish were obtained from the north east region of the Bay of Biscay (north east Atlantic Ocean) by trawling at depths between 700 and 1400 m. Liver and gonad samples were collected on board ship and fixed for histological processing and subsequent examination by light microscopy. Hepatocellular and nuclear pleomorphism and individual cases of ovotestis and foci of cellular alteration (FCA) were detected in black scabbardfish (Aphanopus carbo). Six cases of FCA were observed in orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) (n = 50) together with a single case of hepatocellular adenoma. A wide variety of inflammatory and degenerative lesions were found in all species examined. Deep-water fish display a range of pathologies similar to those seen in shelf-sea species used for international monitoring programmes including biological effects of contaminants. This study has confirmed the utility of health screening in deep-water fish for detecting evidence of prior exposure to contaminants and has also gained evidence of pathology potentially associated with exposure to algal toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Feist
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - G D Stentiford
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - M L Kent
- Departments Microbiology & Biomedical Sciences, 220 Nash Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - A Ribeiro Santos
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Lowestoft Laboratory, Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK
| | - P Lorance
- IFREMER, rue de l'île d'Yeu, B.P. 21105, 44311 Nantes Cedex 03, France
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Webster L, Russell M, Walsham P, Hussy I, Lacaze JP, Phillips L, Dalgarno E, Packer G, Neat F, Moffat CF. Halogenated persistent organic pollutants in relation to trophic level in deep sea fish. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2014; 88:14-27. [PMID: 25287221 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in deep sea fish from the Rockall fishing area was investigated. Predator and prey species were analysed for stable isotopes, fatty acids, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). δ(15)N indicated that black scabbard was at the highest trophic level and the prey the lowest. The fatty acid signatures indicated that black scabbard and black dogfish fed at a higher trophic level compared to the roundnose grenadier. PCBs and PBDEs were detected in the liver of all three predator species. PCB concentrations were significantly higher in the roundnose grenadier, possibly due to their longer life span. PCB concentrations were compared to OSPAR assessment criteria, concentrations were above background but below Environmental Assessment Criteria for all but one congener. PCB concentrations were below food safety levels in the flesh, but exceeded the limit for liver in the roundnose grenadier and black dogfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Webster
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom.
| | - Marie Russell
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Pam Walsham
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Ines Hussy
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Pierre Lacaze
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Lesley Phillips
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Dalgarno
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Gill Packer
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Francis Neat
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
| | - Colin F Moffat
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom
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Antelo LT, Lopes C, Franco-Uría A, Alonso AA. Fish discards management: pollution levels and best available removal techniques. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2012; 64:1277-1290. [PMID: 22542692 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Fish discards and by-catch issues are highly topical subjects that are permanently under a social focus. Two main approaches are being considered to address this discard problem: reducing the by-catch and increasing by-catch utilization. Interest in increased by-catch valorization may arise from a greater demand for fish products, such as the development of new markets for previously discarded species, the use of low-value specimens for aquaculture or the creation of value-added fish products for the food, pharmaceutical or cosmetic industries. However, contaminants present in fish discards may be transferred to their valorized products, leading to possible long-term bioaccumulation and subsequent adverse health effects. In this valorization framework, the aim is to promote responsible and sustainable management of marine resources. The pollutant levels in catches from European fisheries and the best available decontamination techniques for marine valorized discards/by-products are compiled and analyzed in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis T Antelo
- Process Engineering Group, Marine Research Institute IIM-CSIC, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain.
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Webster L, Walsham P, Russell M, Hussy I, Neat F, Dalgarno E, Packer G, Scurfield JA, Moffat CF. Halogenated persistent organic pollutants in deep water fish from waters to the west of Scotland. CHEMOSPHERE 2011; 83:839-850. [PMID: 21421255 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Revised: 01/26/2011] [Accepted: 02/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated persistent organic pollutants [polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)] along with total lipid, were measured in the liver and muscle of three species of deep water fish (black scabbard, black dogfish (liver only) and roundnose grenadier) collected from the Rockall fishing area, to the west of Scotland, between 2006 and 2008. Both contaminant groups were detected in the muscle and liver, with concentrations of PCBs being higher than PBDEs. There were no significant differences in the PCB or PBDE concentrations between the three species, or different sampling locations in the Rockall fishing area. PCB concentrations (ΣICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea)7 PCBs) greater than 500 μg kg(-1) lipid weight were found in 26 of the 106 liver samples. PCB concentrations were compared to OSPAR assessment criteria, concentrations were above background but below Environmental Assessment Criteria. Estimated Toxic Equivalent (TEQ) concentrations, calculated using published models, in the fish muscle and liver indicated that consumption of deep water fish is unlikely to represent a risk to human health. The high squalene content in some of the black dogfish liver necessitated an additional clean-up step, involving gel permeation chromatography, when analyzing for PBDEs. Concentrations of PBDEs were low with many congeners being below detection limits, particularly in the muscle. There are currently no assessment criteria available for PBDEs. Furthermore, there is only very limited data on PBDEs in deep water fish. However, the concentrations observed in this study were similar to the concentrations recently reported in Mediterranean deep water fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Webster
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, United Kingdom.
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Webster L, Russell M, Walsham P, Phillips LA, Hussy I, Packer G, Dalgarno EJ, Moffat CF. An assessment of persistent organic pollutants in Scottish coastal and offshore marine environments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:1288-307. [DOI: 10.1039/c1em10100e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Köppen R, Becker R, Esslinger S, Nehls I. Enantiomer-specific analysis of hexabromocyclododecane in fish from Etnefjorden (Norway). CHEMOSPHERE 2010; 80:1241-5. [PMID: 20605040 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Revised: 05/26/2010] [Accepted: 06/07/2010] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
High-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was applied to sterospecifically quantify the content of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in six fish species from the Norwegian Etnefjorden. A combination of a beta-PM cyclodextrin and an achiral column enabled the paired chromatographic separation of the stereoisomers in the order (-)-alpha-, (+)-alpha-, (-)-beta-, (+)-beta-, (+)-gamma- and, (-)-gamma-HBCD. The limits of detection were in the range of 6-21 pg g(-1) depending on the stereoisomer and the concentrations of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-HBCD in fillets ranged from <5.4 ng g(-1) to 11.1 microg g(-1) lipid weight. alpha-HBCD enantiomers were throughout dominating, and in most cases the accumulation of the respective first eluted enantiomers ((-)-alpha-, (-)-beta- and (+)-gamma-HBCD) was observed. Deviations from the racemic EF-value were considered to be significant if it was outside of the expanded uncertainty range for each of the racemic HBCD-ratios. The composition of HBCD isomers varied between the investigated fish species and the relative high values for the gamma-HBCD concentrations for the bottom-dwellers flounder and thorny skate seems to echo the HBCD pattern of ocean sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Köppen
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstätter-Strasse 11, D-12489 Berlin, Germany.
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