Nanoparticulate pollutants in the environment: Analytical methods, formation, and transformation

The wide application of nanomaterials and plastic products generates a substantial number of nanoparticulate pollutants in the environment. Nanoparticulate pollutants are quite different from their bulk counterparts because of their unique physicochemical properties, which may pose a threat to environmental organisms and human beings. To accurately predict the environmental risks of nanoparticulate pollutants, great efforts have been devoted to developing reliable methods to define their occurrence and track their fate and transformation in the environment. Herein, we summarized representative studies on the preconcentration, separation, formation, and transformation of nanoparticulate pollutants in environmental samples. Finally, some perspectives on future research directions are proposed.

Rapid detection of five pesticide residues using complexes of gold nanoparticle and porphyrin combined with ultraviolet visible spectrum

BACKGROUD

Pesticides are widely used to control insect infestation and weeds in agriculture. However, concerns about the pesticide residues in agricultural products have been raised in recent years because of public interest in health and food quality and safety. Thus, rapid, convenient, and accurate analytical methods for the detection and quantification of pesticides are urgently required.

RESULTS

A nanohybrid system composed of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and tetrakis(N-methyl-4-pyridiniumyl) porphyrin (TMPyP) was used as an optical probe for the detection and quantification of five pesticides (Paraquat, Dipterex, Dursban, methyl thiophanate and Cartap). The method is based on the aggregation effect of pesticides on the carboxyl group modified by AuNPs. Subsequently, with the help of particle swarm optimization-optimized sample weighted least squares-support vector machine (PSO-OSWLS-SVM), all the pesticides could be successfully quantified. In addition, partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was applied and the five pesticides were satisfactorily recognized based on data array obtained from the ultraviolet visible (UV-visible) spectra of AuNP-TMPyP complex. Furthermore, the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the five pesticides could be also achieved in the complex real samples, in which all the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were less than 0.3‰ and all the linear absolute correlation coefficients were more than 0.9990. Furthermore, recognition rate of the training set and the prediction set based on multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), or second-order derivative (2nd derivative) UV-visible spectra in PLS-DA model could reach 100%.

CONCLUSION

This method was successfully applied for the rapid and accurate determination of multicomponent pesticide residues in real food samples. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Photochemical Vapor Generation for Colorimetric Speciation of Inorganic Selenium

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are widely used as optical probes in colorimetric detection, thanks to their high molar extinction coefficient. However, sample matrixes of high salinity or strong acidity/alkalinity often break the electrostatic repulsion of AuNPs suspension, or/and the surface functionality of AuNPs, causing strong and unfavorable interferences. Photochemical vapor generation (PVG) is an efficient technique for the sample matrix separation. Besides, it possesses distinct features of green reducing reagent, reduced interferences from concomitant elements, and direct speciation by the assistance of photocatalyst. Herein, we developed a photochemical vapor generation (PVG) method for the green and direct speciation analysis of inorganic selenium (i.e., Se(IV) and Se(VI)), by colorimetric or visual monitoring of unmodified AuNPs. The generated Se species from PVG were directed into the AuNPs solution for a reaction to take place, which produced a specific new absorption band at 600 nm for detection. The experimental parameters, including the concentration of organic acid, the sample flow rate, the concentration of AuNPs, and the flow rate of carries gas, were optimized in detail. Under optimized conditions, the limits of detection (LOD) for Se(IV) and Se(VI) were 0.007 and 0.006 μg mL^-1 by UV-vis detection, respectively. It is worth mentioning that 0.08 μg mL^-1 Se can induce an obvious color change, which can be directly observed with the naked eye. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 4.5% and 4.3% were obtained from seven replicate measurements of 0.15 μg mL^-1 Se(IV) and Se(VI) standard solution, respectively. The developed assay has been successfully applied for the speciation of Se in a dietary supplement sample and environmental water samples including lake water, seawater, simulated water reference materials, and tap water.

Selective Micellar Extraction of Ultratrace Levels of Uranium in Aqueous Samples by Task Specific Ionic Liquid Followed by Its Detection Employing Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry

A task specific ionic liquid (TSIL) bearing phosphoramidate group, viz., N-propyl(diphenylphosphoramidate)trimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, was synthesized and characterized by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, ³¹P NMR, and IR spectroscopies, elemental (C H N S) analysis, and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Using this TSIL a cloud point extraction (CPE) or micelle mediated extraction procedure was developed for preconcentration of uranium (U) in environmental aqueous samples. Total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was utilized to determine the concentration of U in the preconcentrated samples. In order to understand the mechanism of the CPE procedure, complexation study of the TSIL with U was carried out by isothermal calorimetric titration, liquid-liquid extraction, ³¹P NMR and IR spectroscopies, and ESI-MS. The developed analytical technique resulted in quantitative extraction efficiency of 99.0 ± 0.5% and a preconcentration factor of 99 for U. The linear dynamic range and method detection limit of the procedure were found to be 0.1-1000 ng mL^-1 and 0.02 ng mL^-1, respectively. The CPE procedure was found to tolerate a higher concentration of commonly available interfering cations and anions, especially the lanthanides. The developed analytical method was validated by determining the concentration of U in a certified reference material, viz., NIST SRM 1640a natural water, which was found to be in good agreement at a 95% confidence limit with the certified value. The method was successfully applied to the U determination in three natural water samples with ≤4% relative standard deviation (1σ).

A simple and selective colorimetric mercury (II) sensing system based on chitosan stabilized gold nanoparticles and 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid

The development of simple and cost-effective methods for the detection and treatment of Hg²⁺ in the environment is an important area of research due to the serious health risk that Hg²⁺ poses to humans. Colorimetric sensing based on the induced aggregation of nanoparticles is of great interest since it offers a low cost, simple, and relatively rapid procedure, making it perfect for on-site analysis. Herein we report the development of a simple colorimetric sensor for the selective detection and estimation of mercury ions in water, based on chitosan stabilized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (PDA). In the presence of Hg²⁺, PDA induces the aggregation of AuNPs, causing the solution to change colors varying from red to blue, depending on the concentration of Hg²⁺. The formation of aggregated AuNPs in the presence of Hg²⁺ was confirmed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The method exhibits linearity in the range of 300nM to 5μM and shows excellent selectivity towards Hg²⁺ among seventeen different metal ions and was successfully applied for the detection of Hg²⁺ in spiked river water samples. The developed technique is simple and superior to the existing techniques in that it allows detection of Hg²⁺ using the naked eye and simple and rapid colorimetric analysis, which eliminates the need for sophisticated instruments and sample preparation methods.

Simultaneous preconcentration of uranium and thorium in aqueous samples using cloud point extraction

Simultaneous cloud point extraction of uranium and thorium in aqueous samples with the highest reported extraction efficiencies and preconcentration factors.

Malonamide dithiocarbamate functionalized gold nanoparticles for colorimetric sensing of Cu2+ and Hg2+ ions

In this study, a colorimetric probe was developed based on malonamide dithiocarbamate functionalized gold nanoparticles (MA–DTC–Au NPs) for the simultaneous colorimetric detection of Cu²⁺ and Hg²⁺ ions.

Colorimetric Au nanoparticle probe for speciation test of arsenite and arsenate inspired by selective interaction between phosphonium ionic liquid and arsenite

The exposure of millions of people to unsafe levels of arsenite (AsIII) and arsenate (AsV) in drinking waters calls for the development of low-cost methods for on-site monitoring these two arsenic species in waters. Herein, for the first time, tetradecyl (trihexyl) phosphonium chloride ionic liquid was found to selectively bind with AsIII via extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis. Based on the finding, an AsIII-specific probe was developed by modifying gold nanoparticles with the ionic liquid. Futhermore, Hofmeister effect was primarily observed to significantly affect the sensitivity of gold nanoparticle probe. With the colorimetric probe, we developed a protocol for naked eye speciation test of AsIII and AsV at levels below the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 10 μg L(-1). This method featured with high tolerance to common coexisting ions such as 10 mM PO4(3-), and was validated by assaying certified reference and environmental water samples.

Colorimetric detection of mercury ions based on plasmonic nanoparticles

The development of rapid, specific, cost-effective, and robust tools in monitoring Hg(2+) levels in both environmental and biological samples is of utmost importance due to the severe mercury toxicity to humans. A number of techniques exist, but the colorimetric assay, which is reviewed herein, is shown to be a possible tool in monitoring the level of mercury. These assays allow transforming target sensing events into color changes, which have applicable potential for in-the-field application through naked-eye detection. Specifically, plasmonic nanoparticle-based colorimetric assay exhibits a much better propensity for identifying various targets in terms of sensitivity, solubility, and stability compared to commonly used organic chromophores. In this review, recent progress in the development of gold nanoparticle-based colorimetric assays for Hg(2+) is summarized, with a particular emphasis on examples of functionalized gold nanoparticle systems with oligonucleotides, oligopeptides, and functional molecules. Besides highlighting the current design principle for plasmonic nanoparticle-based colorimetric probes, the discussions on challenges and the prospect of next-generation probes for in-the-field applications are also presented.

Synthesis of photoluminescent Au ND-PNIPAM hybrid microgel for the detection of Hg2+

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) microgels (PNIPAM MGs) incorporated with photoluminescent gold nanodots (Au NDs) have been prepared and employed for the detection of mercury ions (Hg(2+)). Each of the PNIPAM MGs (hydrodynamic diameter 615 ± 15 nm) contains several Au NDs (diameter 1.8 ± 0.2 nm) in the Au ND-PNIPAM MGs. Like Au NDs, Au ND-PNIPAM MGs exhibit an absorption band at 375 nm that is assigned for ligand to metal charge transfer mixed with metal centered (ds/dp) states and photoluminescence at 520 nm originated from Au ND/polynuclear gold(I)-thiolate (core/shell) complexes. Purification of Au ND-PNIPAM MGs relative to Au NDs is much easier through a simple centrifugation/wash process. On the basis of Hg(2+)-induced photoluminescence quenching due to the formation of Au-Hg amalgam and formation of Au ND-PNIPAM MGs aggregates, the signal response of Au ND-PNIPAM MGs against Hg(2+) concentration is linear over a range from 2 to 20 nM (r = 0.9945). This selective approach provides limits of detection for Hg(2+) (at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3) of 1.9 and 1.7 nM in phosphate buffer solutions (5 mM, pH 7.0) with and without containing 500 mM NaCl, respectively. This selective and sensitive Au ND-PNIPAM MG probe has been applied to the determination of the concentration of Hg in a representative fish sample, showing its practical potential for monitoring of Hg levels in complicated biological and environmental samples.

A sensitive strategy for label-free and time-resolved fluorescence assay of thrombin using Tb-complex and unmodified gold nanoparticles

Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) can effectively differentiate the unfolded and folded aptamer, and quench the fluorescence of terbium ternary complexes (Tb-complexes), thus the authors herein report a sensitive strategy for protein detection, using label-free aptamer, Tb-complexes and GNPs. In the presence of thrombin, the aptamer is inclined to form G-quartet, and the folded aptamer cannot adsorb on the surface of GNPs, inducing the GNPs aggregation in the presence of 0.5 mol L(-1) salt. After centrifugation at low speed to remove the aggregated GNPs, the quenching capability of the supernatant for Tb-complexes is decreased. The fluorescence intensity of Tb-complexes increases as the concentration of thrombin increases. Due to the highly specific recognition ability of the aptamer for thrombin and the strong quenching property of GNPs for Tb-complexes, the proposed protocol has good selectivity and high sensitivity for thrombin. Under the optimum conditions, a linear range from 1.0 × 10(-9) M to 1.0 × 10(-8) M is obtained with a detection limit of 0.14 nM, which is much lower than those commonly obtained for colorimetric sensors and some fluorescent sensors. The signal of Tb-complexes can be measured by time-resolved manner which made most of the unspecific fluorescent background signals be eliminated. The proposed sensor has been successfully applied in complicated biological samples for thrombin detection, and it can provide a promising potential for label-free aptamer-based protein detection.

Sensitive colorimetric visualization of dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide based on anti-aggregation of gold nanoparticles via boronic acid-diol binding

A facile, highly sensitive colorimetric strategy for dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) detection is proposed based on anti-aggregation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) via boronic acid-diol binding chemistry. The aggregation agent, 4-mercaptophenylboronic acid (MPBA), has specific affinity for AuNPs through Au-S interaction, leading to the aggregation of AuNPs by self-dehydration condensation at a certain concentration, which is responsible for a visible color change of AuNPs from wine red to blue. With the addition of NADH, MPBA would prefer reacting with NADH to form stable borate ester via boronic acid-diol binding dependent on the pH and solvent, revealing an obvious color change from blue to red with increasing the concentration of NADH. The anti-aggregation effect of NADH on AuNPs was seen by the naked eye and monitored by UV-vis extinction spectra. The linear range of the colorimetric sensor for NADH is from 8.0 × 10(-9)M to 8.0 × 10(-6)M, with a low detection limit of 2.0 nM. The as-established colorimetric strategy opened a new avenue for NADH determination.

New method for affinity adsorbent screening using gold colloids

A rapid, effective method for the screening of adsorbent ligands based on the unique optical properties of gold colloid has been developed. Different interactions between adsorbate and ligands induce different states of aggregation of the gold colloid, and the associated distinct color changes of the colloid have been utilized to estimate the affinity of the ligands toward the adsorbate. In this work, phosphorylated peptide CGGFGGpSG was appended to a gold colloid to obtain the adsorbate-modified gold colloid (CG8-AuNPs). Candidate ligands Dpa-Zn(2+), DMAPAA, and AAn were copolymerized with acrylamide to form linear polymers and cross-linked CG8-AuNPs to induce aggregation. Screening of the candidate ligands revealed that Dpa-Zn(2+) showed the highest affinity among those tested, inducing a color change of the gold colloid at a concentration of 10 μM, which is much lower than those of ligands DMAPAA (40 μM) and AAn (almost no color change could be observed). Subsequent statistical adsorption experiments confirmed these screening results, with the adsorbent A-AAm-Dpa-Zn(2+) showing the highest adsorption capacity (426 mg/g) for CG-8, almost twice that of adsorbent A-AAm-DMAPAA. This reported method has low sample consumption, and the screening may be simply monitored by the naked eye.

Gold nanoparticles for the colorimetric and fluorescent detection of ions and small organic molecules

In recent years, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have drawn considerable research attention in the fields of catalysis, drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics, therapy and biosensors due to their unique optical and electronic properties. In this review, we summarized recent advances in the development of AuNP-based colorimetric and fluorescent assays for ions including cations (such as Hg(2+), Cu(2+), Pb(2+), As(3+), Ca(2+), Al(3+), etc) and anions (such as NO(2)(-), CN(-), PF(6)(-), F(-), I(-), oxoanions), and small organic molecules (such as cysteine, homocysteine, trinitrotoluene, melamine and cocaine, ATP, glucose, dopamine and so forth). Many of these species adversely affect human health and the environment. Moreover, we paid particular attention to AuNP-based colorimetric and fluorescent assays in practical applications.

Self-assembly of CdTe nanoparticles into dendrite structure: a microsensor to Hg2+

A novel microsensor to Hg(2+) was fabricated through self-assembly of aqueous CdTe nanoparticles (NPs). The morphologies of self-assembly mainly included classical dendrites, straight dendrites, and small islands. The formation process of these morphologies was systematically investigated by using the field emission scanning electron microscope, confocal laser scanning microscope, and atom force microscope instruments, etc. The proposed mechanism showed that the dendrite structure was formed via manipulating the short-range van der Waals interaction and long-range electrostatic interaction, which was realized through altering the ligand and concentration of the CdTe NPs. Furthermore, polymers with positive charges were used to effectively control the morphology of the self-assembly as well as improve the property of photoluminescence. These CdTe dendrites were used as microsensors to Hg(2+), which presented the advantages of low cost, quick detection time, high selectivity, and easy operation.

Highly sensitive, colorimetric detection of mercury(II) in aqueous media by quaternary ammonium group-capped gold nanoparticles at room temperature

We provide a highly sensitive and selective assay to detect Hg(2+) in aqueous solutions using gold nanoparticles modified with quaternary ammonium group-terminated thiols at room temperature. The mechanism is the abstraction of thiols by Hg(2+) that led to the aggregation of nanoparticles. With the assistance of solar light irradiation, the detection limit can be as low as 30 nM, which satisfies the guideline concentration of Hg(2+) in drinking water set by the WHO. In addition, the dynamic range of detection is wide (3 × 10(-8)-1 × 10(-2) M). This range, to our best knowledge, is the widest one that has been reported so far in gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-based assays for Hg(2+).