Sequence-dependence of Cy3 and Cy5 dyes in 3' terminally-labeled single-stranded DNA

Fluorescence is an ideal tool to see and manipulate nucleic acids, and engage in their rich and complex biophysical properties. Labeling is the preferred approach to track and quantify fluorescence with nucleic acids and cyanine dyes are emblematic in this context. The fluorescent properties of cyanine dyes are known to be sequence-dependent, with purines in the immediate vicinity increasing the fluorescence intensity of Cy3 and Cy5 dyes, and the ability of nucleobases to modulate the photophysical properties of common fluorophores may influence fluorescence measurements in critical assays such as FISH, qPCR or high-throughput sequencing. In this paper, we comprehensively map the sequence-dependence of Cy3 and Cy5 dyes in 3ʹ-fluorescently labeled single-stranded DNA by preparing the complete permutation library of the 5 consecutive nucleotides immediately adjacent to the dye, or 1024 sequences. G-rich motifs dominate the high fluorescence range, while C-rich motifs lead to significant quenching, an observation consistent with 5ʹ-labeled systems. We also uncover GCGC patterns in the extreme top range of fluorescence, a feature specific to 3ʹ-Cy3 and Cy5 oligonucleotides. This study represents the final piece in linking nucleotide identity to fluorescence changes for Cy3, Cy5 and fluorescein in all 3ʹ, 5ʹ, single-stranded and double-stranded DNA formats.

Systematic study of SYBR green chromophore reveals major improvement with one heteroatom difference

Five nucleic acid binding cyanine dyes were synthesized and their photophysical properties were evaluated. Changing a single heteroatom in the chromophore causes major differences both in brightness and photostability between the dyes. With such alteration, the brightness of the chromophore increased two-fold compared to the one found in SYBR Green I.

Fundamental photophysics of isomorphic and expanded fluorescent nucleoside analogues

Fluorescent nucleoside analogues (FNAs) are structurally diverse mimics of the natural essentially non-fluorescent nucleosides which have found numerous applications in probing the structure and dynamics of nucleic acids as well as their interactions with various biomolecules. In order to minimize disturbance in the labelled nucleic acid sequences, the FNA chromophoric groups should resemble the natural nucleobases in size and hydrogen-bonding patterns. Isomorphic and expanded FNAs are the two groups that best meet the criteria of non-perturbing fluorescent labels for DNA and RNA. Significant progress has been made over the past decades in understanding the fundamental photophysics that governs the spectroscopic and environmentally sensitive properties of these FNAs. Herein, we review recent advances in the spectroscopic and computational studies of selected isomorphic and expanded FNAs. We also show how this information can be used as a rational basis to design new FNAs, select appropriate sequences for optimal spectroscopic response and interpret fluorescence data in FNA applications.

Förster Resonance Energy Transfer Nanoplatform Based on Recognition-Induced Fusion/Fission of DNA Mixed Micelles for Nucleic Acid Sensing

The dynamic nature of micellar nanostructures is employed to form a self-assembled Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) nanoplatform for enhanced sensing of DNA. The platform consists of lipid oligonucleotide FRET probes incorporated into micellar scaffolds, where single recognition events result in fusion and fission of DNA mixed micelles, triggering the fluorescence response of multiple rather than a single FRET pair. In comparison to conventional FRET substrates where a single donor interacts with a single acceptor, the micellar multiplex FRET system showed ∼20- and ∼3-fold enhancements in the limit of detection and FRET efficiency, respectively. This supramolecular signal amplification approach could potentially be used to improve FRET-based diagnostic assays of nucleic acid and non-DNA based targets.

Precisely spun super rotors

Improved optical control of molecular quantum states promises new applications including chemistry in the quantum regime, precision tests of fundamental physics, and quantum information processing. While much work has sought to prepare ground state molecules, excited states are also of interest. Here, we demonstrate a broadband optical approach to pump trapped SiO⁺ molecules into pure super rotor ensembles maintained for many minutes. Super rotor ensembles pumped up to rotational state N = 67, corresponding to the peak of a 9400 K distribution, had a narrow N spread comparable to that of a few-kelvin sample, and were used for spectroscopy of the previously unobserved C²Π state. Significant centrifugal distortion of super rotors pumped up to N = 230 allowed probing electronic structure of SiO⁺ stretched far from its equilibrium bond length.

Optical pulses can be useful to create and control molecules in higher quantum states. Here the authors use optical pumping to create rotationally excited states of SiO⁺ molecular ion into super rotor ensemble.

A Hitchhiker's Guide to Click-Chemistry with Nucleic Acids

Click chemistry is an immensely powerful technique for the fast and efficient covalent conjugation of molecular entities. Its broad scope has positively impacted on multiple scientific disciplines, and its implementation within the nucleic acid field has enabled researchers to generate a wide variety of tools with application in biology, biochemistry, and biotechnology. Azide-alkyne cycloadditions (AAC) are still the leading technology among click reactions due to the facile modification and incorporation of azide and alkyne groups within biological scaffolds. Application of AAC chemistry to nucleic acids allows labeling, ligation, and cyclization of oligonucleotides efficiently and cost-effectively relative to previously used chemical and enzymatic techniques. In this review, we provide a guide to inexperienced and knowledgeable researchers approaching the field of click chemistry with nucleic acids. We discuss in detail the chemistry, the available modified-nucleosides, and applications of AAC reactions in nucleic acid chemistry and provide a critical view of the advantages, limitations, and open-questions within the field.

Single-molecule analysis of nucleic acid biomarkers - A review

Nucleic acids are important biomarkers for disease detection, monitoring, and treatment. Advances in technologies for nucleic acid analysis have enabled discovery and clinical implementation of nucleic acid biomarkers. However, challenges remain with technologies for nucleic acid analysis, thereby limiting the use of nucleic acid biomarkers in certain contexts. Here, we review single-molecule technologies for nucleic acid analysis that can be used to overcome these challenges. We first discuss the various types of nucleic acid biomarkers important for clinical applications and conventional technologies for nucleic acid analysis. We then discuss technologies for single-molecule in vitro and in situ analysis of nucleic acid biomarkers. Finally, we discuss other ultra-sensitive techniques for nucleic acid biomarker detection.

Single Molecule Fluorescent Colocalization of Split Aptamers for Ultrasensitive Detection of Biomolecules

Single-molecule fluorescence imaging is a promising strategy for biomolecule detection. However, the accuracy of single-molecule method is often compromised by the false-positive events at the ultralow sample levels that are caused by the nonspecific adsorption of the fluorescent labeled probe and other fluorescent impurities on the imaging surface. Here, we demonstrate an ultrasensitive single molecule detection assay based on dual-color fluorescent colocalization of spilt aptamers that was implemented to the measurement of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP aptamer was split into two fragments and labeled with green and red dye molecules, respectively. When the two probes of split aptamers were brought together by the target ATP molecule, the two colors of fluorescence of two probes were simultaneously detected through two channels and projected to the correlated locations in the two halves of image. The colocalizaiton imaging of two split apatamer probes greatly excluded the false detection of biomolecules that was usually caused by the fluorescent noise of single nonbound aptamer probes and impurities, and further improved the accuracy of measurement. The assay showed excellent selectivity and high sensitivity for ATP detection with linear range of 1 pM to 5 nM and a detection limit of 100 fM. This versatile protocol of single molecule colocalization of split apatamer can be widely applied to the ultrasensitive and highly accurate detection of many types of biomolecules in basic research and biomedical applications.

How zinc ions shift and enhance the nucleotide's fluorescence spectra

Zinc–nucleotide complexes in alkaline solutions exhibit strong fluorescence enhancement and red shift, thus enabling an optical discrimination between the nucleotides.

Lab-on-capillary: a rapid, simple and quantitative genetic analysis platform integrating nucleic acid extraction, amplification and detection

In this work, we describe for the first time a genetic diagnosis platform employing a polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDDA)-modified capillary and a liquid-based thermalization system for rapid, simple and quantitative DNA analysis with minimal user interaction. Positively charged PDDA is modified on the inner surface of the silicon dioxide capillary by using an electrostatic self-assembly approach that allows the negatively charged DNA to be separated from the lysate in less than 20 seconds. The capillary loaded with the PCR mix is incorporated in the thermalization system, which can achieve on-site real-time PCR. This system is based on the circulation of pre-heated liquids in the chamber, allowing for high-speed thermalization of the capillary and fast amplification. Multiple targets can be simultaneously analysed with multiplex spatial melting. Starting with live Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells in milk, as a realistic sample, the current method can achieve DNA extraction, amplification, and detection within 40 min.

Quantitative determination of a siRNA (AD00370) in rat plasma using peptide nucleic acid probe and HPLC with fluorescence detection

AIM

Toxicokinetic and pharmacokinetic studies of therapeutic oligonucleotides require validated bioanalytical methods for sensitive and specific quantification of oligonucleotide drug candidates in biological samples.

RESULTS

A peptide nucleic acid (PNA) hybridization-based HPLC-fluorescence assay was developed and validated for quantification of Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals' proprietary siRNA in rat plasma samples via hybridization and anion-exchange-HPLC (AEX-HPLC) with fluorescence detection.

CONCLUSION

The validated method provided a sensitive and selective approach for quantification of siRNA in biological samples at a linear quantitation range of 1-1000 ng/ml. The assay requires only 25 μl of plasma sample and shows excellent accuracy and precision even without using an internal standard, providing a useful quantification method for siRNA determination in biological matrix with limited sample volume.

DNA-stabilized silver nanoclusters and carbon nanoparticles oxide: A sensitive platform for label-free fluorescence turn-on detection of HIV-DNA sequences

Based on the remarkable difference between the interactions of carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) oxide with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), and the fact that fluorescence of DNA-stabilized silver nanoclusters (AgNCs) can be quenched by CNPs oxide, DNA-functionalized AgNCs were applied as label-free fluorescence probes and a novel fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) sensor was successfully constructed for the detection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) DNA sequences. CNPs oxide were prepared with the oxidation of candle soot, hence it is simple, time-saving and low-cost. The strategy of dual AgNCs probes was applied to improve the detection sensitivity by using dual- probe capturing the same target DNA in a sandwich mode and as the fluorescence donor, and using CNPs oxide as the acceptor. In the presence of target DNA, a dsDNA hybrid forms, leading to the desorption of the ssDNA-AgNCs probes from CNPs oxide, and the recovering of fluorescence of the AgNCs in a HIV-DNA concentration-dependent manner. The results show that HIV-DNA can be detected in the range of 1-50nM with a detection limit of 0.40nM in aqueous buffer. The method is simple, rapid and sensitive with no need of labeled fluorescent probes, and moreover, the design of fluorescent dual-probe makes full use of the excellent fluorescence property of AgNCs and further improves the detection sensitivity.

Analysis of single nucleic acid molecules in micro- and nano-fluidics

Nucleic acid analysis has enhanced our understanding of biological processes and disease progression, elucidated the association of genetic variants and disease, and led to the design and implementation of new treatment strategies. These diverse applications require analysis of a variety of characteristics of nucleic acid molecules: size or length, detection or quantification of specific sequences, mapping of the general sequence structure, full sequence identification, analysis of epigenetic modifications, and observation of interactions between nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Strategies that can detect rare or transient species, characterize population distributions, and analyze small sample volumes enable the collection of richer data from biosamples. Platforms that integrate micro- and nano-fluidic operations with high sensitivity single molecule detection facilitate manipulation and detection of individual nucleic acid molecules. In this review, we will highlight important milestones and recent advances in single molecule nucleic acid analysis in micro- and nano-fluidic platforms. We focus on assessment modalities for single nucleic acid molecules and highlight the role of micro- and nano-structures and fluidic manipulation. We will also briefly discuss future directions and the current limitations and obstacles impeding even faster progress toward these goals.

1-Phenylethynylpyrene (PEPy) as a novel blue-emitting dye for qPCR assay

An alkyl azide derivative of 1-phenylethynylpyrene (PEPy) dye was prepared and used in the functionalization of oligonucleotides via click chemistry. Spectral and photo-physical properties of the PEPy-modified oligonucleotides as a single strand, and in perfect or mismatched duplexes, have been studied. A series of PEPy-Dabcyl fluorogenic TaqMan probes were synthesized and tested in qPCR. PEPy proved to be a superior substitute for AMCA as a short wavelength fluorescent dye for qPCR probes. PEPy probes were shown to significantly reduce Cq (a fractional PCR cycle used for quantification) vs. AMCA labeled probes, thus improving on the reliability of detection. Moreover, a larger increase of fluorescence during amplification was observed in the case of PEPy probes that makes this dye very suitable for an end-point PCR technique. This study broadens the panel of fluorescent dyes suitable for the use in probes for quantitative real-time PCR.

SERS-based immunoassay using a core–shell SiO2@Ag immune probe and Ag-decorated NiCo2O4 nanorods immune substrate

A novel sandwich structure consisting of the SiO₂@Ag immune probe and the Ag-decorated NNRs substrate was used to detect AFP and a detection limit is as low as 2.1 fg mL⁻¹.

New technologies for DNA analysis--a review of the READNA Project

The REvolutionary Approaches and Devices for Nucleic Acid analysis (READNA) project received funding from the European Commission for 41/2 years. The objectives of the project revolved around technological developments in nucleic acid analysis. The project partners have discovered, created and developed a huge body of insights into nucleic acid analysis, ranging from improvements and implementation of current technologies to the most promising sequencing technologies that constitute a 3(rd) and 4(th) generation of sequencing methods with nanopores and in situ sequencing, respectively.

Enzyme-Free Detection of Mutations in Cancer DNA Using Synthetic Oligonucleotide Probes and Fluorescence Microscopy

Background

Rapid reliable diagnostics of DNA mutations are highly desirable in research and clinical assays. Current development in this field goes simultaneously in two directions: 1) high-throughput methods, and 2) portable assays. Non-enzymatic approaches are attractive for both types of methods since they would allow rapid and relatively inexpensive detection of nucleic acids. Modern fluorescence microscopy is having a huge impact on detection of biomolecules at previously unachievable resolution. However, no straightforward methods to detect DNA in a non-enzymatic way using fluorescence microscopy and nucleic acid analogues have been proposed so far.

Methods and Results

Here we report a novel enzyme-free approach to efficiently detect cancer mutations. This assay includes gene-specific target enrichment followed by annealing to oligonucleotides containing locked nucleic acids (LNAs) and finally, detection by fluorescence microscopy. The LNA containing probes display high binding affinity and specificity to DNA containing mutations, which allows for the detection of mutation abundance with an intercalating EvaGreen dye. We used a second probe, which increases the overall number of base pairs in order to produce a higher fluorescence signal by incorporating more dye molecules. Indeed we show here that using EvaGreen dye and LNA probes, genomic DNA containing BRAF V600E mutation could be detected by fluorescence microscopy at low femtomolar concentrations. Notably, this was at least 1000-fold above the potential detection limit.

Conclusion

Overall, the novel assay we describe could become a new approach to rapid, reliable and enzyme-free diagnostics of cancer or other associated DNA targets. Importantly, stoichiometry of wild type and mutant targets is conserved in our assay, which allows for an accurate estimation of mutant abundance when the detection limit requirement is met. Using fluorescence microscopy, this approach presents the opportunity to detect DNA at single-molecule resolution and directly in the biological sample of choice.

Ultra-high-density 3D DNA arrays within nanoporous biocompatible membranes for single-molecule-level detection and purification of circulating nucleic acids

Extracellular nucleic acids freely circulating in blood and other physiologic fluids are important biomarkers for non-invasive diagnostics and early detection of cancer and other diseases, yet difficult to detect because they exist in very low concentrations and large volumes. Here we demonstrate a new broad-range sensor platform for ultrasensitive and selective detection of circulating DNA down to the single-molecule level. The biosensor is based on a chemically functionalized nanoporous diamond-like carbon (DLC) coated alumina membrane. The few nanometer-thick, yet perfect and continuous DLC-coating confers the chemical stability and biocompatibility of the sensor, allowing its direct application in biological conditions. The selective detection is based on complementary hybridization of a fluorescently-tagged circulating cancer oncomarker (a 21-mer nucleic acid) with covalently immobilized DNA on the surface of the membrane. The captured DNAs are detected in the nanoporous structure of the sensor using confocal scanning laser microscopy. The flow-through membrane sensor demonstrates broad-range sensitivity, spanning from 10(15) molecules per cm(2) down to single molecules, which is several orders of magnitude improvement compared to the flat DNA microarrays. Our study suggests that these flow-through type nanoporous sensors represent a new powerful platform for large volume sampling and ultrasensitive detection of different chemical biomarkers.

Quantifying molecular colocalization in live cell fluorescence microscopy

One of the most challenging tasks in microscopy is the quantitative identification and characterization of molecular interactions. In living cells this task is typically performed by fluorescent labeling of the interaction partners with spectrally distinct fluorophores and imaging in different color channels. Current methods for determining colocalization of molecules result in outcomes that can vary greatly depending on signal-to-noise ratios, threshold and background levels, or differences in intensity between channels. Here, we present a novel and quantitative method for determining the degree of colocalization in live-cell fluorescence microscopy images for two and more data channels. Moreover, our method enables the construction of images that directly classify areas of high colocalization.

Pyrene-modified PNAs: Stacking interactions and selective excimer emission in PNA2DNA triplexes

Pyrene derivatives can be incorporated into nucleic acid analogs in order to obtain switchable probes or supramolecular architectures. In this paper, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) containing 1 to 3 1-pyreneacetic acid units (PNA1–6) with a sequence with prevalence of pyrimidine bases, complementary to cystic fibrosis W1282X point mutation were synthesized. These compounds showed sequence-selective switch-on of pyrene excimer emission in the presence of target DNA, due to PNA₂DNA triplex formation, with stability depending on the number and positioning of the pyrene units along the chain. An increase in triplex stability and a very high mismatch-selectivity, derived from combined stacking and base-pairing interactions, were found for PNA2, bearing two distant pyrene units.

Sandwich assay for mixed-sequence recognition of double-stranded DNA: invader-based detection of targets specific to foodborne pathogens

A 96-well plate sandwich assay based on Invader capture/signalling probes is used to recognize 28-mer mixed-sequence dsDNA targets specific to Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli. Targets are detected down to 20-55 pM concentration with excellent binding specificity.

Towards a spectrum-based bar code for identification of weakly fluorescent microparticles

Spectrally resolved detection of fluorescent probes can be used to identify multiple labeled target molecules in an unknown mixture. We study how the spectral shape, the experimental noise, and the number of spectral detection channels affect the success of identification of weakly fluorescent beads on basis of their emission spectra. The proposed formalism allows to estimate the performance of the spectral identification procedure with a given set of spectral codes on the basis of the reference spectra only. We constructed a simple prism-based setup for spectral detection and demonstrate that seven distinct but overlapping spectral codes realized by combining up to three fluorescent dyes bound to a single bead in a barcode-based manner can be reliably identified. The procedure allows correct identification even in the presence of known autofluorescence background stronger than the actual signal.

Fluorescent silver nanoclusters as DNA probes

Fluorescent silver nanoclusters (few atoms, quantum sized) have attracted much attention as promising substitutes for conventional fluorophores. Due to their unique environmental sensitivities, new fluorescent probes have been developed based on silver nanoclusters for the sensitive and specific detection of DNA. In this review we present the recent discoveries of activatable and color-switchable properties of DNA-templated silver nanoclusters and discuss the strategies to use these new properties in DNA sensing.

Single quantum dot analysis enables multiplexed point mutation detection by gap ligase chain reaction

Gene point mutations present important biomarkers for genetic diseases. However, existing point mutation detection methods suffer from low sensitivity, specificity, and a tedious assay processes. In this report, an assay technology is proposed which combines the outstanding specificity of gap ligase chain reaction (Gap-LCR), the high sensitivity of single-molecule coincidence detection, and the superior optical properties of quantum dots (QDs) for multiplexed detection of point mutations in genomic DNA. Mutant-specific ligation products are generated by Gap-LCR and subsequently captured by QDs to form DNA-QD nanocomplexes that are detected by single-molecule spectroscopy (SMS) through multi-color fluorescence burst coincidence analysis, allowing for multiplexed mutation detection in a separation-free format. The proposed assay is capable of detecting zeptomoles of KRAS codon 12 mutation variants with near 100% specificity. Its high sensitivity allows direct detection of KRAS mutation in crude genomic DNA without PCR pre-amplification.

Click Chemistry – a Versatile Method for Nucleic Acid Labelling, Cyclisation and Ligation

The copper-catalysed [3+2] alkyne azide cycloaddition reaction (the CuAAC reaction) is the classic example of ‘click’ chemistry, a relatively new concept that has been influential in many areas of science. It is used in the nucleic acid field for DNA cross-linking, oligonucleotide ligation and cyclisation, DNA and RNA labelling, attaching DNA to surfaces, producing modified nucleobases and backbones, synthesising ribozymes and monitoring nucleic acid biosynthesis. More recently a related click reaction, the ring strain-promoted azide–alkyne [3+2] cycloaddition (SPAAC) reaction has been used successfully in DNA strand ligation and labelling. This does not require copper catalysis, and therefore has many potential uses in vivo. In this review we discuss recent developments in nucleic acid click chemistry and their applications in biology, biotechnology and nanotechnology.

4',5'-Dichloro-2',7'-dimethoxy-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (JOE): synthesis and spectral properties of oligonucleotide conjugates

A convenient procedure for the preparation of the fluorescent dye 4',5'-dichloro-2',7'-dimethoxy-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (JOE) is reported; the overall yield achieved starting from isovanillin is 10 times higher (40% vs 4%) compared to the known procedure. Isomers (5- and 6-) are easily chromatographically separable as pentafluorophenyl esters of 3',6'-O-bis(cyclohexylcarbonyl) derivatives. Four non-nucleoside JOE phosphoramidites based on 5- and 6-isomers and flexible 6-aminohexanol (AH) or rigid 4-trans-aminocyclohexanol (ACH) linkers have been prepared and used for oligonucleotide labeling. Spectral and photophysical properties of 5'-JOE-modified oligonucleotides have been studied. Fluorescence quantum yield of the dye correlates with the nature of the linker (rigid vs flexible) and with the presence of dG nucleosides in close proximity to a JOE residue.

Fluorescent oligonucleotides containing a novel perylene 2′-amino-α-L-LNA monomer: Synthesis and analytical potential

Herein, a novel fluorescent nucleotide analogue, perylene-2′-amino-α-L-LNA, has been prepared and studied within synthetic oligonucleotides of different sequences. The phosphoramidite reagent was synthesized in 85% overall yield starting from 2′-amino-α-L-LNA nucleoside. Incorporation efficiency of the resulting perylene-2′-amino-α-L-LNA monomer (T*) into synthetic oligonucleotides was significantly improved by replacement of the typically used 1H-tetrazole activator with pyridine hydrochloride. Generally, oligonucleotides containing monomerT* showed high binding affinity towards complementary DNA and RNA targets, batochromically shifted excitation/emission wavelengths with respect to the often applied polyaromatic hydrocarbon pyrene, high fluorescent quantum yields and very low target detection limits (5–10 nM). Fluorescence of single stranded LNA/DNA mixmer oligonucleotide having two incorporations of monomersT* was quenched (quantum yield ΦF= 0.21) relative to duplexes of this probe with complementary DNA and RNA (ΦF= 0.42 and 0.35, respectively). On the contrary, a strong fluorescence quenching upon target binding was demonstrated by two short oligonucleotides of analogues sequences containing monomersT* at 5′- and 3′-terminal positions. We explain the hybridization-induced light-up effect observed for double-labeled probe by a reduction of fluorescence quenching due to precise positioning of the fluorophores within the double-stranded complexes. Furthermore, we propose that a covalent link between twoT* monomers in the double-labeled probe provides a remarkable degree of rigidity in the double helix which enforces positioning of the bulky perylene moieties in the nonpolar groove resulting in reduced fluorescence quenching.

New 9-methyl-8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)adenine derivatives as A1 adenosine receptor antagonists

A new series of 9-methyladenines, bearing different bulky groups at the 8-position, were prepared and their affinity for the four human adenosine receptor subtypes were evaluated. All the synthesized compounds showed affinities at the A1, A2A, and A3AR subtypes ranging from nanomolar to micromolar levels with different degrees of A1selectivity, while they resulted nearly inactive at A2BAR. In particular, 9-methyl-8-[4-(4-methylbenzyloxy)phenyl]- adenine showed A1AR affinity in the nanomolar range and good levels of selectivity versus the other receptor subtypes. Furthermore, a functional assay at mouse ileum allowed to assess the potency of selected compounds at A1AR subtype. Results showed that all the tested derivatives are neutral antagonists and theirKbvalues are in good agreement with theKivalues from radioligand binding assay at human A1AR, confirming that the effect is due to inhibition of this subtype.

Microfluidic sensing: state of the art fabrication and detection techniques

Here we introduce the existing fabrication techniques, detection methods, and related techniques for microfluidic sensing, with an emphasis on the detection techniques. A general survey and comparison of the fabrication techniques were given, including prototyping (hot embossing, inject molding, and soft lithography) and direct fabrication (laser micromachining, photolithography, lithography, and x-ray lithography) techniques. This is followed by an in-depth look at detection techniques: optical, electrochemical, mass spectrometry, as well as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-based sensing approaches and related techniques. In the end, we highlight several of the most important issues for future work on microfluidic sensing. This article aims at providing a tutorial review with both introductory materials and inspiring information on microfluidic fabrication and sensing for nonspecialists.