Targeted photodynamic therapy of breast cancer cells using antibody-phthalocyanine-gold nanoparticle conjugates

A paradigm use of monoclonal antibodies-conjugated nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment: current status and potential approaches

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are integral to cancer treatment over conventional non-specific therapy methods. This study provides a scoping review of the clinically approved mAbs, focusing on the current application of different nanocarrier technologies as drug delivery targets for mAb-conjugated nanoparticles (NPs) as potential features for breast cancer (BC) treatment. An extensive literature search was conducted between the years 2000 and 2023 using various sources of databases. The first part covered mAb classification, types, and mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and clinical applications in BC. The second part covered polymeric, lipid and inorganic-based NPs, which are a variety of mAb-conjugated NPs targeting BC. A total of 20 relevant studies were enrolled indicating there are three different types of nanoparticular systems (polymeric NPs, inorganic NPs and lipid-based NPs) that can be used for BC treatment by being loaded with various active substances and conjugated with these antibodies. While mAbs have altered the way in cancer treatment due to targeting cancer cells specifically, the delivery of mAbs with nanoparticulate systems is important in the treatment of BC, as NPs are still being investigated as distinctive and promising drug delivery methods that can be employed for effective treatment of BC.

The phototoxic effect of a gold-antibody-based nanocarrier of phthalocyanine on melanoma monolayers and tumour spheroids

In recent years, photodynamic therapy (PDT) has garnered significant attention in cancer treatment due to its increased potency and non-invasiveness compared to conventional therapies. Active-targeted delivery of photosensitizers (PSs) is a mainstay strategy to significantly reduce its off-target toxicity and enhance its phototoxic efficacy. The anti-melanoma inhibitory activity (MIA) antibody is a targeting biomolecule that can be integrated into a nanocarrier system to actively target melanoma cells due to its specific binding to MIA antigens that are highly expressed on the surface of melanoma cells. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are excellent nanocarriers due to their ability to encapsulate a variety of therapeutics, such as PSs, and their ability to bind with targeting moieties for improved bioavailability in cancer cells. Hence, we designed a nanobioconjugate (NBC) composed of zinc phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (ZnPcS4), AuNPs and anti-MIA Ab to improve ZnPcS4 bioavailability and phototoxicity in two and three-dimensional tumour models. In summary, we demonstrated that this nanobioconjugate showed significant inhibitory effects on both melanoma models due to increased ROS yields and bioavailability of the melanoma cells compared to free ZnPcS4.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Precision Targeting in Oncology

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative force in oncology, facilitating advancements in site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. The development of nanomedicines explicitly targeted to cancer cells represents a pivotal breakthrough, allowing the development of precise interventions. These cancer-cell-targeted nanomedicines operate within the intricate milieu of the tumour microenvironment, further enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. This comprehensive review provides a contemporary perspective on precision cancer medicine and underscores the critical role of nanotechnology in advancing site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. It explores the categorization of nanoparticle types, distinguishing between organic and inorganic variants, and examines their significance in the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs. Current insights into the strategies for developing actively targeted nanomedicines across various cancer types are also provided, thus addressing relevant challenges associated with drug delivery barriers. Promising future directions in personalized cancer nanomedicine approaches are delivered, emphasising the imperative for continued optimization of nanocarriers in precision cancer medicine. The discussion underscores translational research's need to enhance cancer patients' outcomes by refining nanocarrier technologies in nanotechnology-driven, site-specific cancer therapy.

Biological Performance of Hexadeca-Substituted Metal Phthalocyanine/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanobioagents

This study presents a tetra-substituted phthalonitrile derivative, namely, diethyl 2-(3,4-dicyano-2,5-bis(hexyloxy)-6-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenoxy)phenyl)malonate (a), cyclotetramerizing in the presence of some metal salts. The resultant hexadeca-substituted metal phthalocyanines [M= Co, Zn, InCl)] (b-d) were used for the modification of reduced graphene oxide for the first time. The effect of the phthalonitrile/metal phthalocyanines on biological features of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was extensively examined by the investigation of antioxidant, antimicrobial, DNA cleavage, cell viability, and antibiofilm activities of nanobioagents (1-4). The results were compared with those of unmodified rGO (nanobioagent 5), as well. Modification of reduced graphene oxide with the synthesized compounds improved its antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activities of all the tested nanobioagents also enhanced as the concentration increased. The antibacterial activities of all the nanobioagents improved by applying the photodynamic therapeutic (PDT) method. All the phthalonitrile/phthalocyanine-based nanobioagents (especially phthalocyanine-based nanocomposites) exhibited DNA cleavage activities, and complete DNA fragmentation was observed for nanobioagents (1-4) at 200 mg/L. They can be used as potent antimicrobial and antimicrobial photodynamic therapy agents as well as Escherichia coli microbial cell inhibitors. As a result, the prepared nanocomposites can be considered promising candidates for biomedicine.

Cell viability and cytotoxicity assays: Biochemical elements and cellular compartments

Cell viability and cytotoxicity assays play a crucial role in drug screening and evaluating the cytotoxic effects of various chemicals. The quantification of cell viability and proliferation serves as the cornerstone for numerous in vitro assays that assess cellular responses to external factors. In the last decade, several studies have developed guidelines for defining and interpreting cell viability and cytotoxicity based on morphological, biochemical, and functional perspectives. As this domain continues to experience ongoing growth, revealing new mechanisms orchestrating diverse cell cytotoxicity pathways, we suggest a revised classification for multiple assays employed in evaluating cell viability and cell death. This classification is rooted in the cellular compartment and/or biochemical element involved, with a specific focus on mechanistic and essential aspects of the process. The assays are founded on diverse cell functions, encompassing metabolic activity, enzyme activity, cell membrane permeability and integrity, adenosine 5'-triphosphate content, cell adherence, reduction equivalents, dye inclusion or exclusion, constitutive protease activity, colony formation, DNA fragmentation and nuclear splitting. These assays present straightforward, reliable, sensitive, reproducible, cost-effective, and high-throughput approaches for appraising the effects of newly formulated chemotherapeutic biomolecules on the cell survival during the drug development process.

Harnessing the power of gold: advancements in anticancer gold complexes and their functionalized nanoparticles

Cancer poses a formidable challenge, necessitating improved treatment strategies. Metal-based drugs and nanotechnology offer new hope in this battle. Versatile gold complexes and functionalized gold nanoparticles exhibit unique properties like biologically inert behaviour, outstanding light absorption, and heat-conversion abilities. These nanoparticles can be finely tuned for drug delivery, enabling precise and targeted cancer therapy. Their exceptional drug-loading capacity and low toxicity, stemming from excellent stability, biocompatibility, and customizable shapes, make them a promising option for enhancing cancer treatment outcomes and improving diagnostic imaging. Leveraging these attributes, researchers can design more effective and targeted cancer therapeutics. The potential of functionalized gold nanoparticles to advance cancer treatment and diagnostics holds a promising avenue for further exploration and development in the fight against cancer. This review article delves into the finely tuned attributes of functionalized gold nanoparticles, unveiling their potential for application in drug delivery for precise and targeted cancer therapy.

Evaluation of the effects of photodynamic therapy consisted of the blue laser and zinc oxide QDs on MDA-MB-231 cancer cells by inhibiting cancer markers and inducing apoptosis

The increasing number of cancer patients has cast attention on developing new anti-cancer modalities. Photodynamic therapy is a safe anti-cancer approach, which encompasses (1) local administration of a photosensitizer and (2) light irradiation. Zinc oxide (ZnO) quantum dots (QDs) are photosensitizers that can be utilized for this purpose. In the present study, to better appreciate the likely more efficient cytotoxic effect of the combination of ZnO QDs and the visible 470-nm blue light in comparison to the QDs alone, several assays were to be conducted upon breast cancer MDA-MB 231 cells. MTT assay showed that in certain groups the combination displayed higher cytotoxic effects compared to those following QD treatment alone. LDH leakage and lipid peroxidation rates by the combination were significantly higher than treatment with either the blue laser or QDs. Although the combination managed to meaningfully reduce the number of colonies and CAT activity compared to QD treatment, there were no palpable differences between them. Lastly, the combination was able to increase the apoptotic genes, including BAX, TP53, caspase 3, and caspase 9 compared to QD, while, in the case of Bcl-2, an anti-apoptotic gene, none of the groups managed to make any tangible differences on its expression levels. Our findings propose that there may be synergistic effects between the blue laser and QD that can possibly be adopted in anti-cancer therapy in the future. However, further investigations regarding this matter are of the essence.

Metal-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy: Exploring photodynamic therapy and its interplay with regulated cell death pathways

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) represents a non-invasive treatment strategy currently utilized in the clinical management of selected cancers and infections. This technique is predicated on the administration of a photosensitizer (PS) and subsequent irradiation with light of specific wavelengths, thereby generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) within targeted cells. The cellular effects of PDT are dependent on both the localization of the PS and the severity of ROS challenge, potentially leading to the stimulation of various cell death modalities. For many years, the concept of regulated cell death (RCD) triggered by photodynamic reactions predominantly encompassed apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy. However, in recent decades, further explorations have unveiled additional cell death modalities, such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, cuproptosis, pyroptosis, parthanatos, and immunogenic cell death (ICD), which helps to achieve tumor cell elimination. Recently, nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated substantial advantages over traditional PSs and become important components of PDT, due to their improved physicochemical properties, such as enhanced solubility and superior specificity for targeted cells. This review aims to summarize recent advancements in the applications of different metal-based NPs as PSs or delivery systems for optimized PDT in cancer treatment. Furthermore, it mechanistically highlights the contribution of RCD pathways during PDT with metal NPs and how these forms of cell death can improve specific PDT regimens in cancer therapy.

An Overview of Metallic Nanoparticles: Classification, Synthesis, Applications, and their Patents

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology has gained enormous attention in pharmaceutical research. Nanotechnology is used in the development of nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 1-100 nm, with several extraordinary features. Metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) are used in various areas, such as molecular biology, biosensors, bio imaging, biomedical devices, diagnosis, pharmaceuticals, etc., for their specific applications.

METHODOLOGY

For this study, we have performed a systematic search and screening of the literature and identified the articles and patents focusing on various physical, chemical, and biological methods for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles and their pharmaceutical applications.

RESULTS

A total of 174 references have been included in this present review, of which 23 references for recent patents were included. Then, 29 papers were shortlisted to describe the advantages, disadvantages, and physical and chemical methods for their synthesis, and 28 articles were selected to provide the data for biological methods for the formulation of metal NPs from bacteria, algae, fungi, and plants with their extensive synthetic procedures. Moreover, 27 articles outlined various clinical applications of metal NPs due to their antimicrobial and anticancer activities and their use in drug delivery.

CONCLUSION

Several reviews are available on the synthesis of metal nanoparticles and their pharmaceutical applications. However, this review provides updated research data along with the various methods employed for their development. It also summarizes their various advantages and clinical applications (anticancer, antimicrobial drug delivery, and many others) for various phytoconstituents. The overview of earlier patents by several scientists in the arena of metallic nanoparticle preparation and formulation is also presented. This review will be helpful in increasing the current knowledge and will also inspire to innovation of nanoparticles for the precise and targeted delivery of phytoconstituents for the treatment of several diseases.

Potential Application of Self-Assembled Peptides and Proteins in Breast Cancer and Cervical Cancer

Ongoing research is gradually broadening the idea of cancer treatment, with attention being focused on nanoparticles to improve the stability, therapeutic efficacy, targeting, and other important metrics of conventional drugs and traditional drug delivery methods. Studies have demonstrated that drug delivery carriers based on biomaterials (e.g., protein nanoparticles and lipids) and inorganic materials (e.g., metal nanoparticles) have potential anticancer effects. Among these carriers, self-assembled proteins and peptides, which are highly biocompatible and easy to standardize and produce, are strong candidates for the preparation of anticancer drugs. Breast cancer (BC) and cervical cancer (CC) are two of the most common and deadly cancers in women. These cancers not only threaten lives globally but also put a heavy burden on the healthcare system. Despite advances in medical care, the incidence of these two cancers, particularly CC, which is almost entirely preventable, continues to rise, and the mortality rate remains steady. Therefore, there is still a need for in-depth research on these two cancers to develop more targeted, efficacious, and safe therapies. This paper reviews the types of self-assembling proteins and peptides (e.g., ferritin, albumin, and virus-like particles) and natural products (e.g., soy and paclitaxel) commonly used in the treatment of BC and CC and describes the types of drugs that can be delivered using self-assembling proteins and peptides as carriers (e.g., siRNAs, DNA, plasmids, and mRNAs). The mechanisms (including self-assembly) by which the natural products act on CC and BC are discussed. The mechanism of action of natural products on CC and BC and the mechanism of action of self-assembled proteins and peptides have many similarities (e.g., NF-KB and Wnt). Thus, natural products using self-assembled proteins and peptides as carriers show potential for the treatment of BC and CC.

Design and assembly of a nanoparticle, antibody, phthalocyanine scaffold for intracellular delivery of photosensitizer to human papillomavirus-transformed cancer cells

In photodynamic therapy (PDT), internalization and uptake of the photosensitizer (PS) by the cells is a passive process that relies on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect of tumour tissues due to their vasculature, increased LDL receptors, and decreased lymphatic drainage in vivo. But as worries about PDT resistance grow, using passive techniques to administer PSs is becoming less and less viable. According to reported resistance mechanisms, it is necessary to improve PS delivery by changing PS absorption and bioavailability in order to enhance the therapeutic outcome. Therefore, in this study, a multifunctional photosensitizing agent with specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to E6 oncoproteins was developed for PDT of human papillomavirus (HPV)-transformed cancer cells. Using PEGylated Gold Nanoparticles (PEGy-AuNP) at the core, anti-E6 mAbs and phthalocyanines were bound together. This compound demonstrated enhanced internalization of PS, resulting in enhanced PDT effects. In spite of being demonstrated in vitro, the substance in this work is intended for in vivo application, and conclusions are drawn to suggest possible outcomes for in vivo models based on observed data. By making PSs more bioavailable, facilitating their entry into cells, and preventing efflux through intracellular binding, this strategy may reduce cellular resistance to PDT.

Organic-inorganic hybrid nanoflowers as a new biomimetic platform for ROS-induced apoptosis by photodynamic therapy

We report here a newly and facile synthesis of the phospholipids@gold nanoflowers (AuNFs) from intact cells as a new biomimetic organic-inorganic hybrid. The most appealing feature of this nanostructure is its dual-absorbing peak in near infrared (NIR) and visible region of spectra, which makes them a potential light-sensitive agent for reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced apoptosis. Here, in contrast to previous studies, proposed nanostructures are synthesized in a one-pot reaction using phospholipids present in living cell membranes (as a donor cell) with detectable micro process of AuNF formation. The properties of the resulting AuNFs were evaluated through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), as well as FT-IR, 31P-NMR spectra and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Designed cell membrane-based nanostructure looks like an intact cell and would be able to interact with other cells (as a target cell) and also capable to produce cytotoxic singlet oxygen under NIR irradiation. Generated ROS act as a key player in initiation of programmed cell death (apoptosis) and progress of cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT). Cellular experiments on breast cancer MCF-7 cells demonstrated that they may be effective as photodynamic therapy agents.

Biomedical Approach of Nanotechnology and Biological Risks: A Mini-Review

Nanotechnology has played a prominent role in biomedical engineering, offering innovative approaches to numerous treatments. Notable advances have been observed in the development of medical devices, contributing to the advancement of modern medicine. This article briefly discusses key applications of nanotechnology in tissue engineering, controlled drug release systems, biosensors and monitoring, and imaging and diagnosis. The particular emphasis on this theme will result in a better understanding, selection, and technical approach to nanomaterials for biomedical purposes, including biological risks, security, and biocompatibility criteria.

Near-Infrared BODIPY Photosensitizer for Modulating Mitochondrial Fusion Proteins and Inhibiting Choroidal Neovascularization

Photosensitizers have emerged as cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) activators in photodynamic therapy (PDT), which induced cell apoptosis. As the major contributors to ROS and oxidative stress, mitochondria play an important role in cell apoptosis. Although there are many reports about near-infrared 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene (BODIPY) as photosensitizers (PSs) for PDT, this kind of PS has rarely been used for treating mitochondrial function and choroidal neovascularization application at the same time. Herein, a novel near-infrared PS (BDP2) characterized by good water solubility, long wavelength excitation, and high ROS quantum yield has been made. Under near-infrared light irradiation, BDP2 would generate ROS with high yield, induce a mitochondrial morphology change, and trigger cell apoptosis by changing the fusion protein level. Deep investigation revealed that BDP2 can cause oxidative stress, break the balance between fusion and fission of mitochondrial dynamics protein through decreasing fusion protein MFN2 and OPA1 expression, and finally cause cell apoptosis. Due to these characteristics, the BDP2 PS was used to treat choroidal neovascularization in animal models and can inhibit neovascularization.

Surface Functionalization of Gold Nanoparticles for Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment to Improve Antitumor Efficiency

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have undergone significant research for their use in the treatment of cancer. Numerous researchers have established their potent antitumor properties, which have greatly impacted the treatment of cancer. AuNPs have been used in four primary anticancer treatment modalities, namely radiation, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the ability of AuNPs to destroy cancer is lacking and can even harm healthy cells without the right direction to transport them to the tumor microenvironment. Consequently, a suitable targeting technique is needed. Based on the distinct features of the human tumor microenvironment, this review discusses four different targeting strategies that target the four key features of the tumor microenvironment, including abnormal vasculature, overexpression of specific receptors, an acidic microenvironment, and a hypoxic microenvironment, to direct surface-functionalized AuNPs to the tumor microenvironment and increase antitumor efficacies. In addition, some current completed or ongoing clinical trials of AuNPs will also be discussed below to further reinforce the concept of using AuNPs in anticancer therapy.

Nanoparticles-induced potential toxicity on human health: Applications, toxicity mechanisms, and evaluation models

Nanoparticles (NPs) have become one of the most popular objects of scientific study during the past decades. However, despite wealth of study reports, still there is a gap, particularly in health toxicology studies, underlying mechanisms, and related evaluation models to deeply understanding the NPs risk effects. In this review, we first present a comprehensive landscape of the applications of NPs on health, especially addressing the role of NPs in medical diagnosis, therapy. Then, the toxicity of NPs on health systems is introduced. We describe in detail the effects of NPs on various systems, including respiratory, nervous, endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems, and the carcinogenicity of NPs. Furthermore, we unravels the underlying mechanisms of NPs including ROS accumulation, mitochondrial damage, inflammatory reaction, apoptosis, DNA damage, cell cycle, and epigenetic regulation. In addition, the classical study models such as cell lines and mice and the emerging models such as 3D organoids used for evaluating the toxicity or scientific study are both introduced. Overall, this review presents a critical summary and evaluation of the state of understanding of NPs, giving readers more better understanding of the NPs toxicology to remedy key gaps in knowledge and techniques.

Photodynamic Therapy of Aluminum Phthalocyanine Tetra Sodium 2-Mercaptoacetate Linked to PEGylated Copper-Gold Bimetallic Nanoparticles on Colon Cancer Cells

This work reports for the first time on the synthesis, characterization, and photodynamic therapy efficacy of the novel aluminium (III) chloride 2(3), 9(10), 16(17), 23(24)-tetrakis-(sodium 2-mercaptoacetate) phthalocyanine (AlClPcTS41) when alone and when conjugated to PEGylated copper-gold bimetallic nanoparticles (PEG-CuAuNPs) as photosensitizers on colon cancer cells (Caco-2). The novel AlClPcTS41 was covalently linked to the PEG-CuAuNPs via an amide bond to form AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs. The amide bond was successfully confirmed using FTIR while the crystal structures were studied using XRD. The morphological and size variations of the PEG-CuAuNPs and AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs were studied using TEM, while the hydrodynamic sizes and polydispersity of the particles were confirmed using DLS. The ground state electron absorption spectra were also studied and confirmed the typical absorption of metallated phthalocyanines and their nanoparticle conjugates. Subsequently, the subcellular uptake, cellular proliferation, and PDT anti-tumor effect of AlClPcTS41, PEG-CuAuNPs, and AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs were investigated within in vitro Caco-2 cells. The designed AlClPcTS41 and AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs demonstrated significant ROS generation abilities that led to the PDT effect with a significantly decreased viable cell population after PDT treatment. These results demonstrate that the novel AlClPcTS41 and AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs had remarkable PDT effects against Caco-2 cells and may trigger apoptosis cell death pathway, indicating the potential of the AlClPcTS41 and AlClPcTS41-PEG-CuAuNPs in enhancing the cytotoxic effect of PDT treatment.

Antibody-modified Gold Nanobiostructures: Advancing Targeted Photodynamic Therapy for Improved Cancer Treatment

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an innovative, non-invasive method of treating cancer that uses light-activated photosensitizers to create reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, challenges associated with the limited penetration depth of light and the need for precise control over photosensitizer activation have hindered its clinical translation. Nanomedicine, particularly gold nanobiostructures, offers promising solutions to overcome these limitations. This paper reviews the advancements in PDT and nanomedicine, focusing on applying antibody-modified gold nanobiostructures as multifunctional platforms for enhanced PDT efficacy and improved cancer treatment outcomes. The size, shape, and composition of gold nanobiostructures can significantly influence their PDT efficacy, making synthetic procedures crucial. Functionalizing the surface of gold nanobiostructures with various molecules, such as antibodies or targeting agents, bonding agents, PDT agents, photothermal therapy (PTT) agents, chemo-agents, immunotherapy agents, and imaging agents, allows composition modification. Integrating gold nanobiostructures with PDT holds immense potential for targeted cancer therapy. Antibody-modified gold nanobiostructures, in particular, have gained significant attention due to their tunable plasmonic characteristics, biocompatibility, and surface functionalization capabilities. These multifunctional nanosystems possess unique properties that enhance the efficacy of PDT, including improved light absorption, targeted delivery, and enhanced ROS generation. Passive and active targeting of gold nanobiostructures can enhance their localization near cancer cells, leading to efficient eradication of tumor tissues upon light irradiation. Future research and clinical studies will continue to explore the potential of gold nanobiostructures in PDT for personalized and effective cancer therapy. The synthesis, functionalization, and characterization of gold nanobiostructures, their interaction with light, and their impact on photosensitizers' photophysical and photochemical properties, are important areas of investigation. Strategies to enhance targeting efficiency and the evaluation of gold nanobiostructures in vitro and in vivo studies will further advance their application in PDT. The integrating antibody-modified gold nanobiostructures in PDT represents a promising strategy for targeted cancer therapy. These multifunctional nanosystems possess unique properties that enhance PDT efficacy, including improved light absorption, targeted delivery, and enhanced ROS generation. Continued research and development in this field will contribute to the advancement of personalized and effective cancer treatment approaches.

Photodynamic Therapy Efficacy of Novel Zinc Phthalocyanine Tetra Sodium 2-Mercaptoacetate Combined with Cannabidiol on Metastatic Melanoma

This work reports for the first time on the synthesis, characterization, and photodynamic therapy effect of a novel water-soluble zinc (II) 2(3), 9(10), 16(17), 23(24)-tetrakis-(sodium 2-mercaptoacetate) phthalocyanine (ZnPcTS41), on metastatic melanoma cells (A375) combined with cannabidiol (CBD). The ZnPcTS41 structure was confirmed using FTIR, NMR, MS, and elemental analysis while the electronic absorption spectrum was studied using UV-VIS. The study reports further on the dose-dependent effects of ZnPcTS41 (1-8 µM) and CBD alone (0.3-1.1 µM) at 636 nm with 10 J/cm2 on cellular morphology and viability. The IC50 concentrations of ZnPcTS41 and CBD were found to be 5.3 µM and 0.63 µM, respectively. The cytotoxicity effects of the ZnPcTS41 enhanced with CBD on A375 cells were assessed using MTT cell viability assay, ATP cellular proliferation and inverted light microscopy. Cell death induction was also determined via Annexin V-FITC-PI. The combination of CBD- and ZnPcTS41-mediated PDT resulted in a significant reduction in cell viability (15%***) and an increase in the late apoptotic cell population (25%*). These findings suggest that enhancing PDT with anticancer agents such as CBD could possibly obliterate cancer cells and inhibit tumor recurrence.

Nanoemulsion applications in photodynamic therapy

Nanoemulsion, or nanoscaled-size emulsions, is a thermodynamically stable system formed by blending two immiscible liquids, blended with an emulsifying agent to produce a single phase. Nanoemulsion science has advanced rapidly in recent years, and it has opened up new opportunities in a variety of fields, including pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food, and cosmetics. Nanoemulsion has been recognized as a potential drug delivery technology for various drugs, such as photosensitizing agents (PS). In photodynamic therapy (PDT), PSs produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species under specific light irradiation, which oxidize the surrounding tissues. Over the past decades, the idea of PS-loaded nanoemulsions has received researchers' attention due to their ability to overcome several limitations of common PSs, such as limited permeability, non-specific phototoxicity, hydrophobicity, low bioavailability, and self-aggregation tendency. This review aims to provide fundamental knowledge of nanoemulsion formulations and the principles of PDT. It also discusses nanoemulsion-based PDT strategies and examines nanoemulsion advantages for PDT, highlighting future possibilities for nanoemulsion use.

Theranostic Properties of Crystalline Aluminum Phthalocyanine Nanoparticles as a Photosensitizer

The study of phthalocyanines, known photosensitizers, for biomedical applications has been of high research interest for several decades. Of specific interest, nanophotosensitizers are crystalline aluminum phthalocyanine nanoparticles (AlPc NPs). In crystalline form, they are water-insoluble and atoxic, but upon contact with tumors, immune cells, or pathogenic microflora, they change their spectroscopic properties (acquire the ability to fluoresce and become phototoxic), which makes them upcoming agents for selective phototheranostics. Aqueous colloids of crystalline AlPc NPs with a hydrodynamic size of 104 ± 54 nm were obtained using ultrasonic dispersal and centrifugation. Intracellular accumulation and localization of AlPc were studied on HeLa and THP-1 cell cultures and macrophages (M0, M1, M2) by fluorescence microscopy. Crystallinity was assessed by XRD spectroscopy. Time-resolved spectroscopy was used to obtain characteristic fluorescence kinetics of AlPc NPs upon interaction with cell cultures. The photodynamic efficiency and fluorescence quantum yield of AlPc NPs in HeLa and THP-1 cells were evaluated. After entering the cells, AlPc NPs localized in lysosomes and fluorescence corresponding to individual AlPc molecules were observed, as well as destruction of lysosomes and a rapid decrease in fluorescence intensity during photodynamic action. The photodynamic efficiency of AlPc NPs in THP-1 cells was almost 1.8-fold that of the molecular form of AlPc (Photosens). A new mechanism for the occurrence of fluorescence and phototoxicity of AlPc NPs in interaction with cells is proposed.

Photodynamic therapy in breast cancer treatment

Breast cancer is a serious public problem in modern society. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is increasingly used in modern medicine. Currently, PDT is an innovative method of treating breast cancer. Irreversible damage to neoplastic tissues is associated with the use of physicochemical processes. Generating cytotoxic reactive oxygen species [singlet oxygen (1O2)] is leading to tumor cell death. At the same time, valuable information can be extracted from breast cancer cells. Photogenerated 1O2 is the major factor responsible for cell necrosis during PDT. 1O2 can react rapidly intracellularly with all organic substances. The use of photodynamic therapy on tissues in vitro creates conditions for testing various types of solutions and implementing them in in vivo treatment. This article is a review of recent advances in PDT for treatment of breast cancer. PDT is a novel cancer diagnostic and cancer treatment therapy. Therefore, an understanding of the possibility to generate a toxic form of 1O2 is necessary. The knowledge gained from the basics of PDT in vitro can be useful in biomedical applications in vivo. The current literature mentions PDT in the treatment of cancers located very deep within the human body. Therefore, the development of agents used to deliver 1O2 to the deep cancerous tissue is a new challenge which can have an efficient impact on this discipline. This review covers the literature between 2000-2022.

A Gold Nanoparticle Bioconjugate Delivery System for Active Targeted Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer and Cancer Stem Cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs), also called tumor-initiating cells, are a subpopulation of cancer cells believed to be the leading cause of cancer initiation, growth, metastasis, and recurrence. Presently there are no effective treatments targeted at eliminating CSCs. Hence, an urgent need to develop measures to target CSCs to eliminate potential recurrence and metastasis associated with CSCs. Cancer stem cells have inherent and unique features that differ from other cancer cells, which they leverage to resist conventional therapies. Targeting such features with photodynamic therapy (PDT) could be a promising treatment for drug-resistant cancer stem cells. Photodynamic therapy is a light-mediated non-invasive treatment modality. However, PDT alone is unable to eliminate cancer stem cells effectively, hence the need for a targeted approach. Gold nanoparticle bioconjugates with PDT could be a potential approach for targeted photodynamic therapy of cancer and CSCs. This approach has the potential for enhanced drug delivery, selective and specific attachment to target tumor cells/CSCs, as well as the ability to efficiently generate ROS. This review examines the impact of a smart gold nanoparticle bioconjugate coupled with a photosensitizer (PS) in promoting targeted PDT of cancer and CSC.

Secure transplantation by tissue purging using photodynamic therapy to eradicate malignant cells

The field of photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating various malignant neoplasms has been given researchers' attention due to its ability to be a selective and minimally invasive cancer therapy strategy. The possibility of tumor cell infection and hence high recurrence rates in cancer patients tends to restrict autologous transplantation. So, the photodynamic tissue purging process, which consists of selective photoinactivation of the malignant cells in the graft, is defined as a compromising strategy to purify contaminated tissues before transplantation. In this strategy, the direct malignant cells' death results from the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation through the activation of a photosensitizer (PS) by light exposure in the presence of oxygen. Since new PS generations can effectively penetrate the tissue, PDT could be an ideal ex vivo tissue purging protocol that eradicates cancer cells derived from various malignancies. The challenge is that the applied pharmacologic ex vivo tissue purging should efficiently induce tumor cells with minor influence on normal tissue cells. This review aims to provide an overview of the current status of the most effective PDT strategies and PS development concerning their potential application in ex vivo purging before hematopoietic stem cell or ovarian tissue transplantation.

Nanoscale metal–organic frameworks as photosensitizers and nanocarriers in photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a new therapeutic system for cancer treatment that is less invasive and offers greater selectivity than chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy. PDT employs irradiation light of known wavelength to excite a photosensitizer (PS) agent that undergoes photochemical reactions to release cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) that could trigger apoptosis or necrosis-induced cell death in tumor tissue. Nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (NMOFs) have unique structural advantages such as high porosity, large surface area, and tunable compositions that have attracted attention toward their use as photosensitizers or nanocarriers in PDT. They can be tailored for specific drug loading, targeting and release, hypoxia resistance, and with photoactive properties for efficient response to optical stimuli that enhance the efficacy of PDT. In this review, an overview of the basic chemistry of NMOFs, their design and use as photosensitizers in PDT, and as nanocarriers in synergistic therapies is presented. The review also discusses the morphology and size of NMOFs and their ability to improve photosensitizing properties and localize within a targeted tissue for effective and selective cancer cell death over healthy cells. Furthermore, targeting strategies that improve the overall PDT efficacy through stimulus-activated release and sub-cellular internalization are outlined with relevance to in vitro and in vivo studies from recent years.

Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles: A Promising Phototherapy Platform

Phototherapy, including photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy, is an emerging form of non-invasive treatment. The combination of imaging technology and phototherapy is becoming an attractive development in the treatment of cancer, as it allows for highly effective therapeutic results through image-guided phototherapy. Porphyrins have attracted significant interest in the treatment and diagnosis of cancer due to their excellent phototherapeutic effects in phototherapy and their remarkable imaging capabilities in fluorescence imaging, magnetic resonance imaging and photoacoustic imaging. However, porphyrins suffer from poor water solubility, low near-infrared absorption and insufficient tumor accumulation. The development of nanotechnology provides an effective way to improve the bioavailability, phototherapeutic effect and imaging capability of porphyrins. This review highlights the research results of porphyrin-based small molecule nanoparticles in phototherapy and image-guided phototherapy in the last decade and discusses the challenges and directions for the development of porphyrin-based small molecule nanoparticles in phototherapy.

Recent trends in the application of nanoparticles in cancer therapy: The involvement of oxidative stress

In the biomedical area, the interdisciplinary field of nanotechnology has the potential to bring numerous unique applications, including better tactics for cancer detection, diagnosis, and therapy. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been the topic of many research and material applications throughout the last decade. Unlike small-molecule medications, NPs are defined by distinct physicochemical characteristics, such as a large surface-to-volume ratio, which allows them to permeate live cells with relative ease. The versatility of NPs as both therapeutics and diagnostics makes them ideal for a broad spectrum of illnesses, from infectious diseases to cancer. A significant amount of data has been participated in the current scientific publications, emphasizing the concept that NPs often produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) to a larger degree than micro-sized particles. It is important to note that oxidative stress governs a wide range of cell signaling cascades, many of which are responsible for cancer cell cytotoxicity. Here, we aimed to provide insight into the signaling pathways triggered by oxidative stress in cancer cells in response to several types of nanomaterials, such as metallic and polymeric NPs and quantum dots. We discuss recent advances in developing integrated anticancer medicines based on NPs targeted to destroy malignant cells by increasing their ROS setpoint.

Antibody-Incorporated Nanomedicines for Cancer Therapy

Antibody-based cancer therapy, one of the most significant therapeutic strategies, has achieved considerable success and progress over the past decades. Nevertheless, obstacles including limited tumor penetration, short circulation half-lives, undesired immunogenicity, and off-target side effects remain to be overcome for the antibody-based cancer treatment. Owing to the rapid development of nanotechnology, antibody-containing nanomedicines that have been extensively explored to overcome these obstacles have already demonstrated enhanced anticancer efficacy and clinical translation potential. This review intends to offer an overview of the advancements of antibody-incorporated nanoparticulate systems in cancer treatment, together with the nontrivial challenges faced by these next-generation nanomedicines. Diverse strategies of antibody immobilization, formats of antibodies, types of cancer-associated antigens, and anticancer mechanisms of antibody-containing nanomedicines are provided and discussed in this review, with an emphasis on the latest applications. The current limitations and future research directions on antibody-containing nanomedicines are also discussed from different perspectives to provide new insights into the construction of anticancer nanomedicines.

Escherichia coli Mimetic Gold Nanorod-Mediated Photo- and Immunotherapy for Treating Cancer and Its Metastasis

Most cancer-related deaths are due to metastasis or recurrence. Therefore, the ultimate goal of cancer therapy will be to treat metastatic and recurrent cancers. Combination therapy for cancer will be one of trial for effective treating metastasis and recurrence. In this study, Escherichia coli-mimetic nanomaterials are synthesized using Escherichia coli membrane proteins, adhesion proteins, and gold nanorods, which are named E. coli mimetic AuNRs (ECA), for combination therapy against cancer and its recurrence. ECA treatment with 808 nm laser irradiation eliminates CT-26 or 4T1 tumors via a photothermal effect. ECA with laser irradiation induces activation of immune cells in the tumor-draining lymph nodes. The mice cured from CT-26 or 4T1 tumor by ECA are rechallenged with those cancer in the lung metastatic form, and the results showed that ECA treatment for the first CT-26 or 4T1 tumor challenge prevents cancer infiltration to the lung in the second challenge. This preventive effect of ECA against tumor growth in the second challenge is aided by cancer antigen-specific T cell immunity. Overall, these findings show that ECA is a nanomaterial with dual functions as a photothermal therapy for treating primary cancers and as immunotherapy for preventing recurrence and metastasis.

Nanoscaled PAMAM Dendrimer Spacer Improved the Photothermal-Photodynamic Treatment Efficiency of Photosensitizer-Decorated Confeito-Like Gold Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy

A critical factor in developing an efficient photosensitizer-gold nanoparticle (PS-AuNP) hybrid system with improved plasmonic photosensitization is to allocate a suitable space between AuNPs and PS. Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer is selected as a spacer between the PS and confeito-like gold nanoparticles (confeito-AuNPs), providing the required distance (≈2.5-22.5 nm) for plasmon-enhanced singlet oxygen generation and heat production upon 638-nm laser irradiation and increase the cellular internalization of the nanoconjugates. The loading of the PS, tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin (TCPP) and modified zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc1) onto PAMAM-confeito-AuNPs demonstrate better in vitro cancer cell-killing efficacy, as the combined photothermal-photodynamic therapies (PTT-PDTs) outperforms the single treatment modalities (PTT or PDT alone). These PS-PAMAM-confeito-AuNPs also demonstrate higher phototoxicity than photosensitizers directly conjugated to confeito-AuNPs (TCPP-confeito-AuNPs and ZnPc1-confeito-AuNPs) against all breast cancer cell lines tested (MDA-MB-231, MCF7 and 4T1). In the in vivo studies, TCPP-PAMAM-confeito-AuNPs are biocompatible and exhibit a selective tumor accumulation effect, resulting in higher antitumor efficacy than free TCPP, PAMAM-confeito-AuNPs and TCPP-confeito-AuNPs. In vitro and in vivo evaluations confirm PAMAM effectiveness in facilitating cellular uptake, plasmon-enhanced singlet oxygen and heat generation. In summary, this study highlights the potential of integrating a PAMAM spacer in enhancing the plasmon effect-based photothermal-photodynamic anticancer treatment efficiency of PS-decorated confeito-AuNPs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Emerging Strategies in Enhancing Singlet Oxygen Generation of Nano-Photosensitizers Toward Advanced Phototherapy

The great promise of photodynamic therapy (PDT) has thrusted the rapid progress of developing highly effective photosensitizers (PS) in killing cancerous cells and bacteria. To mitigate the intrinsic limitations of the classical molecular photosensitizers, researchers have been looking into designing new generation of nanomaterial-based photosensitizers (nano-photosensitizers) with better photostability and higher singlet oxygen generation (SOG) efficiency, and ways of enhancing the performance of existing photosensitizers. In this paper, we review the recent development of nano-photosensitizers and nanoplasmonic strategies to enhance the SOG efficiency for better PDT performance. Firstly, we explain the mechanism of reactive oxygen species generation by classical photosensitizers, followed by a brief discussion on the commercially available photosensitizers and their limitations in PDT. We then introduce three types of new generation nano-photosensitizers that can effectively produce singlet oxygen molecules under visible light illumination, i.e., aggregation-induced emission nanodots, metal nanoclusters (< 2 nm), and carbon dots. Different design approaches to synthesize these nano-photosensitizers were also discussed. To further enhance the SOG rate of nano-photosensitizers, plasmonic strategies on using different types of metal nanoparticles in both colloidal and planar metal-PS systems are reviewed. The key parameters that determine the metal-enhanced SOG (ME-SOG) efficiency and their underlined enhancement mechanism are discussed. Lastly, we highlight the future prospects of these nanoengineering strategies, and discuss how the future development in nanobiotechnology and theoretical simulation could accelerate the design of new photosensitizers and ME-SOG systems for highly effective image-guided photodynamic therapy.

Fe3 O4 @Au@Cu2-x S Heterostructures Designed for Tri-Modal Therapy: Photo- Magnetic Hyperthermia and 64 Cu Radio-Insertion

Here, the synthesis and proof of exploitation of three-material inorganic heterostructures made of iron oxide-gold-copper sulfide (Fe₃ O₄ @Au@Cu_2-x S) are reported. Starting with Fe₃ O₄ -Au dumbbell heterostructure as seeds, a third Cu_2-x S domain is selectively grown on the Au domain. The as-synthesized trimers are transferred to water by a two-step ligand exchange procedure exploiting thiol-polyethylene glycol to coordinate Au and Cu_2-x S surfaces and polycatechol-polyethylene glycol to bind the Fe₃ O₄ surface. The saline stable trimers possess multi-functional properties: the Fe₃ O₄ domain, of appropriate size and crystallinity, guarantees optimal heating losses in magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) under magnetic field conditions of clinical use. These trimers have indeed record values of specific adsorption rate among the inorganic-heterostructures so far reported. The presence of Au and Cu_2-x S domains ensures a large adsorption which falls in the first near-infrared (NIR) biological window and is here exploited, under laser excitation at 808 nm, to produce photo-thermal heat alone or in combination with MHT obtained from the Fe₃ O₄ domain. Finally, an intercalation protocol with radioactive ⁶⁴ Cu ions is developed on the Cu_2-x S domain, reaching high radiochemical yield and specific activity making the Fe₃ O₄ @Au@Cu_2-x S trimers suitable as carriers for ⁶⁴ Cu in internal radiotherapy (iRT) and traceable by positron emission tomography (PET).

Microbial synthesis of gold nanoparticles and their application

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticles play a very important role in our daily lives and have a wide range of applications in agriculture and the field of biology such as antioxidants and antimicrobial compounds. Among them are gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) that are highly complex and widely used. In recent years gold nanoparticles have attracted much attention because of their optical properties, electronic, physicochemical and surface Plasmon resonance (SPR). Gold plated nanoparticles, similar to metal nanoparticles, have many unusual chemical and physical properties due to the effects of their quantum size and location, compared to other iron or metal atoms. Gold nanoparticles can be used in pharmaceutical products such as antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agents, targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs, biosensors, biocatalysis, bioremediation modification of toxic chemicals exposing the soil and atmosphere, dye reduction etc. Yet such methods are expensive and out of harmony with nature. In that account the microbes mediated synthesis of gold nanoparticles changed rapidly recently when pure microbes are ac-friendly, non-toxic and bio compatible as physiological and chemical methods. This document aims to review the progress made in recent years with the fusion of gold nanoparticles. Microbial source includes bacteria, algae fungi. These works motivate the people for how to apply and synthesize of gold nanoparticles. This review also focuses on the process of classification of gold nanoparticles, structures and their use in the development of various requirements.

OBJECTIVE

The main goal is to study about the gold nanoparticles and their application in future.

METHODS

We study different research paper, review paper from "Google Scholar", "NCBI", "PubMed", "Science Direct" and then we making our review paper.

CONCLUSION

Metal nanoparticles are suitable for many emerging technologies. Understanding the microorganisms found in nature because the fusion of gold nanoparticles is required.

Recent Advances in Metallic Nanoparticle Assemblies for Surface-Enhanced Spectroscopy

Robust and versatile strategies for the development of functional nanostructured materials often focus on assemblies of metallic nanoparticles. Research interest in such assemblies arises due to their potential applications in the fields of photonics and sensing. Metallic nanoparticles have received considerable recent attention due to their connection to the widely studied phenomenon of localized surface plasmon resonance. For instance, plasmonic hot spots can be observed within their assemblies. A useful form of spectroscopy is based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). This phenomenon is a commonly used in sensing techniques, and it works using the principle that scattered inelastic light can be greatly enhanced at a surface. However, further research is required to enable improvements to the SERS techniques. For example, one question that remains open is how to design uniform, highly reproducible, and efficiently enhancing substrates of metallic nanoparticles with high structural precision. In this review, a general overview on nanoparticle functionalization and the impact on nanoparticle assembly is provided, alongside an examination of their applications in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy.

Hydrophobic Cargo Encapsulation into Virus Protein Cages by Self-Assembly in an Aprotic Organic Solvent

While extensive studies of virus capsid assembly in environments mimicking in vivo conditions have led to an understanding of the thermodynamic driving forces at work, applying this knowledge to virus assembly in other solvents than aqueous buffers has not been attempted yet. In this study, Brome mosaic virus (BMV) capsid proteins were shown to preserve their self-assembly abilities in an aprotic polar solvent, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). This facilitated protein cage encapsulation of nanoparticles and dye molecules that favor organic solvents, such as β-NaYF4-based upconversion nanoparticles and BODIPY dye. Assembly was found to be robust relative to a surprisingly broad range of DMSO concentrations. Cargos with poor initial stability in aqueous solutions were readily encapsulated at high DMSO concentrations and then transferred to aqueous solvents, where they remained stable and preserved their function for months.

Photodynamic cancer therapy using liposomes as an advanced vesicular photosensitizer delivery system

The multidisciplinary field of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a combination of photochemistry and photophysics sciences, which has shown tremendous potential for cancer therapy application. PDT employs a photosensitizing agent (PS) and light to form cytotoxic reactive oxygen species and subsequently oxidize light-exposed tissue. Despite numerous advantages of PDT and enormous progress in this field, common PSs are still far from ideal treatment because of their poor permeability, non-specific phototoxicity, side effects, hydrophobicity, weak bioavailability, and tendency to self-aggregation. To circumvent these limitations, PS can be encapsulated in liposomes, an advanced drug delivery system that has demonstrated the ability to enhance drug permeability into biological membranes and loading both hydrophobic and lipophilic agents. Moreover, liposomes can also be coated by targeting agents to improve delivery efficiency. The present review aims to summarize the principles of PDT, various PS generations, PS-loaded nanoparticles, liposomes, and their impact on PDT, then discuss recent photodynamic cancer therapy strategies using liposomes as PS-loaded vectors, and highlight future possibilities and perspectives.

Hybrid Inorganic-Organic Core-Shell Nanodrug Systems in Targeted Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer

Hybrid inorganic-organic core-shell nanoparticles (CSNPs) are an emerging paradigm of nanodrug carriers in the targeted photodynamic therapy (TPDT) of cancer. Typically, metallic cores and organic polymer shells are used due to their submicron sizes and high surface to volume ratio of the metallic nanoparticles (NPs), combined with enhances solubility, stability, and absorption sites of the organic polymer shell. As such, the high loading capacity of therapeutic agents such as cancer specific ligands and photosensitizer (PS) agents is achieved with desired colloidal stability, drug circulation, and subcellular localization of the PS agents at the cancer site. This review highlights the synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and applications of hybrid inorganic-organic CSNPs as loading platforms of therapeutic agents for use in TPDT. In addition, cell death pathways and the mechanisms of action that hybrid inorganic-organic core-shell nanodrug systems follow in TPDT are also reviewed. Nanodrug systems with cancer specific properties are able to localize within the solid tumor through the enhanced permeability effect (EPR) and bind with affinity to receptors on the cancer cell surfaces, thus improving the efficacy of short-lived cytotoxic singlet oxygen. This ability by nanodrug systems together with their mechanism of action during cell death forms the core basis of this review and will be discussed with an overview of successful strategies that have been reported in the literature.

Targeted Nanoparticle Photodynamic Diagnosis and Therapy of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an aggressive cancer that remains a challenge to diagnose and treat. Photodynamic diagnosis (PDD) and therapy (PDT) are novel alternative techniques, which can enhance early diagnosis, as well as elicit tumor cell death. This is accomplished through photosensitizer (PS) mediated fluorescence and cytotoxic reactive oxygen species activation upon laser light irradiation excitation at specific low and high range wavelengths, respectively. However, the lack of PS target tumor tissue specificity often hampers these techniques. This study successfully fabricated a bioactive nanoconjugate, ZnPcS4-AuNP-S-PEG5000-NH2-Anti-GCC mAb (BNC), based upon a polyethylene glycol-gold nanoparticle, which was multi-functionalized with a fluorescent PDT metalated zinc phthalocyanine PS, and specific anti-GCC targeting antibodies, to overcome CRC PDD and PDT challenges. The BNC was found to be stable and showed selectively improved subcellular accumulation within targeted CRC for improved PDD and PDT outcomes in comparison to healthy in vitro cultured cells. Additionally, the BNC reported significantly higher late apoptotic PDT-induced CRC cell death rates (34% ***) when compared to PDT PS administration alone (15% *). These results indicated that the improved PDD and PDT outcomes were due to the specific PS accumulation in CRC cells through nanoparticle carriage and bioactive anti-GCC targeting.

Development of Bio-Functionalized, Raman Responsive, and Potentially Excretable Gold Nanoclusters

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are used experimentally for non-invasive in vivo Raman monitoring because they show a strong absorbance in the phototherapeutic window (650–850 nm), a feature that is accompanied by a particle size in excess of 100 nm. However, these AuNPs cannot be used clinically because they are likely to persist in mammalian systems and resist excretion. In this work, clustered ultrasmall (sub-5 nm) AuNP constructs for in vivo Raman diagnostic monitoring, which are also suitable for mammalian excretion, were synthesized and characterized. Sub-5 nm octadecyl amine (ODA)-coated AuNPs were clustered using a labile dithiol linker: ethylene glycol bis-mercaptoacetate (EGBMA). Upon clustering via a controlled reaction and finally coating with a polymeric amphiphile, a strong absorbance in the phototherapeutic window was demonstrated, thus showing the potential suitability of the construct for non-invasive in vivo detection and monitoring. The clusters, when labelled with a biphenyl-4-thiol (BPT) Raman tag, were shown to elicit a specific Raman response in plasma and to disaggregate back to sub-5 nm particles under physiological conditions (37 °C, 0.8 mM glutathione, pH 7.4). These data demonstrate the potential of these new AuNP clusters (Raman NanoTheranostics—RaNT) for in vivo applications while being in the excretable size window.

Gold Nanoparticles; Potential Nanotheranostic Agent in Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review with Systematic Search Strategy

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease typically prevalent among women and is the second-largest cause of death worldwide. Early diagnosis is the key to minimize the cancer-induced complication, however, the conventional diagnostic strategies have been sluggish, complex, and, to some extent, non-specific. Therapeutic tools are not so convenient and side effects of current therapies offer the development of novel theranostic tool to combat this deadly disease.

OBJECTIVE

This article aims to summarize the advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer with gold nanoparticles (GNP or AuNP).

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in the three popular electronic online databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, regarding GNP as breast cancer theranostics.

RESULTS

Published literature demonstrated that GNPs tuned with photosensitive moieties, nanomaterials, drugs, peptides, nucleotide, peptides, antibodies, aptamer, and other biomolecules improve the conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies of breast cancer management with minimum cytotoxic effect. GNP derived diagnosis system assures reproducibility, reliability, and accuracy cost-effectively. Additionally, surface-modified GNP displayed theranostic potential even in the metastatic stage of breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Divergent strategies have shown the theranostic potential of surface tuned GNPs against breast cancer even in the metastatic stage with minimum cytotoxic effects both in vitro and in vivo.

Photodynamic Therapy of Inorganic Complexes for the Treatment of Cancer†

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a medicinal tool that uses a photosensitizer and a light source to treat several conditions, including cancer. PDT uses reactive oxygen species such as cytotoxic singlet oxygen (¹ O₂ ) to induce cell death in cancer cells. Chemotherapy has historically utilized the cytotoxic effects of many metals, especially transition metal complexes. However, chemotherapy is a systemic treatment so all cells in a patient's body are exposed to the same cytotoxic effects. Transition metal complexes have also shown high cytotoxicity as PDT agents. PDT is a potential localized method for treating several cancer types by using inorganic complexes as photosensitizing agents. This review covers several in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as clinical trials that reported on the anticancer properties of inorganic pharmaceuticals used in PDT against different types of cancer.

Biomaterials-Based Delivery of Therapeutic Antibodies for Cancer Therapy

Considerable breakthroughs in the treatment of malignant tumors using antibody drugs, especially immunomodulating monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), have been made in the past decade. Despite technological advancements in antibody design and manufacture, multiple challenges face antibody-mediated cancer therapy, such as instability in vivo, poor tumor penetration, limited response rate, and undesirable off-target cytotoxicity. In recent years, an increasing number of biomaterials-based delivery systems have been reported to enhance the antitumor efficacy of antibody drugs. This review summarizes the advances and breakthroughs in integrating biomaterials with therapeutic antibodies for enhanced cancer therapy. A brief introduction to the principal mechanism of antibody-based cancer therapy is first established, and then various antibody immobilization strategies are provided. Finally, the current state-of-the-art in biomaterials-based antibody delivery systems and their applications in cancer treatment are summarized, highlighting how the delivery systems augment the therapeutic efficacy of antibody drugs. The outlook and perspective on biomaterials-based delivery of antitumor antibodies are also discussed.

Exploiting gold nanoparticles for diagnosis and cancer treatments

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) represent a relatively simple nanosystem to be synthesised and functionalized. AuNPs offer numerous advantages over different nanomaterials, primarily due to highly optimized protocols for their production with sizes in the range 1-150 nm and shapes, spherical, nanorods (AuNRs), nanocages, nanostars or nanoshells (AuNSs), just to name a few. AuNPs possess unique properties both from the optical and chemical point of view. AuNPs can absorb and scatter light with remarkable efficiency. Their outstanding interaction with light is due to the conduction electrons on the metal surface undergoing a collective oscillation when they are excited by light at specific wavelengths. This oscillation, known as a localized surface plasmon resonance, causes the absorption and scattering intensities of AuNPs to be significantly higher than identically sized non-plasmonic nanoparticles. In addition, AuNP absorption and scattering properties can be tuned by controlling the particle size, shape, and the local refractive index near the particle surface. By the chemical side, AuNPs offer the advantage of functionalization with therapeutic agents through covalent and ionic binding, which can be useful for biomedical applications, with particular emphasis on cancer treatments. Functionalized AuNPs exhibit good biocompatibility and controllable distribution patterns when delivered in cells and tissues, which make them particularly fine candidates for the basis of innovative therapies. Currently, major available AuNP-based cancer therapeutic approaches are the photothermal therapy (PTT) or photodynamic therapy (PDT). PTT and PDT rely upon irradiation of surface plasmon resonant AuNPs (previously delivered in cancer cells) by light, in particular, in the near-infrared range. Under irradiation, AuNPs surface electrons are excited and resonate intensely, and fast conversion of light into heat takes place in about 1 ps. The cancer cells are destroyed by the induced hyperthermia, i.e. the condition under which cells are subject to temperature in the range of 41 °C-47 °C for tens of minutes. The review is focused on the description of the optical and thermal properties of AuNPs that underlie their continuous and progressive exploitation for diagnosis and cancer therapy.