Macroporous elastic cryogels based on platelet lysate and oxidized dextran as tissue engineering scaffold: In vitro and in vivo evaluations

In this study, three-dimensional macroporous cryogels were developed from platelet lysate (PL) and different concentrations of oxidized dextran (OD; 0.5, 1, 2, 4%). Subsequently, PL/OD scaffolds were characterized for potential use in tissue engineering applications. The pore size and morphology of the resulting cryogels were visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The pore size distributions were determined using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). In vitro hydrolytic degradation, water uptake, mechanical properties and hemocompatibility were investigated. Extraction test was carried out to evaluate potential in vitro toxic effects of the PL/OD. The in vitro adhesion, proliferation, chondrogenic differentiation, and extracellular matrix production of human adipose stem cells (hASCs) on PL/OD cryogels were evaluated. In vivo biodegradation of the cryogels was investigated at the subcutaneous dorsal site of rats. SEM and MIP results indicated that PL/OD had a macroporous pore structure with pore sizes ranging between 10 and 200 μm. The cryogels completely degraded within 90-240 days post-implantation, depending on OD concentration. Histochemical analysis revealed high levels of cell and tissue infiltration into the pores of PL/OD. In vitro cytotoxicity findings indicated that the extracts of PL/OD_0.5, PL/OD₁ and PL/OD₂ showed no cytotoxic effect, whereas that of PL/OD₄ exhibited a moderate cytotoxic effect on cell cultures. hASCs seeded on PL/OD₂ retained their viability and showed extensive spreading and filopodia formation after 7 days. PL/OD₂ also supported the chondrogenesis of hASCs in the presence of chondro-inductive factors. Given all the results, PL/OD could have potential as a scaffold for tissue engineering applications.

Three-dimensional cryogels for biomedical applications

Cryogels are a subset of hydrogels synthesized under sub-zero temperatures: initially solvents undergo active freezing, which causes crystal formation, which is then followed by active melting to create interconnected supermacropores. Cryogels possess several attributes suited for their use as bioscaffolds, including physical resilience, bio-adaptability, and a macroporous architecture. Furthermore, their structure facilitates cellular migration, tissue-ingrowth, and diffusion of solutes, including nano- and micro-particle trafficking, into its supermacropores. Currently, subsets of cryogels made from both natural biopolymers such as gelatin, collagen, laminin, chitosan, silk fibroin, and agarose and/or synthetic biopolymers such as hydroxyethyl methacrylate, poly-vinyl alcohol, and poly(ethylene glycol) have been employed as 3D bioscaffolds. These cryogels have been used for different applications such as cartilage, bone, muscle, nerve, cardiovascular, and lung regeneration. Cryogels have also been used in wound healing, stem cell therapy, and diabetes cellular therapy. In this review, we summarize the synthesis protocol and properties of cryogels, evaluation techniques as well as current in vitro and in vivo cryogel applications. A discussion of the potential benefit of cryogels for future research and their application are also presented.

Bioinks for 3D bioprinting: an overview

Bioprinting is an emerging technology with various applications in making functional tissue constructs to replace injured or diseased tissues. It is a relatively new approach that provides high reproducibility and precise control over the fabricated constructs in an automated manner, potentially enabling high-throughput production. During the bioprinting process, a solution of a biomaterial or a mixture of several biomaterials in the hydrogel form, usually encapsulating the desired cell types, termed the bioink, is used for creating tissue constructs. This bioink can be cross-linked or stabilized during or immediately after bioprinting to generate the final shape, structure, and architecture of the designed construct. Bioinks may be made from natural or synthetic biomaterials alone, or a combination of the two as hybrid materials. In certain cases, cell aggregates without any additional biomaterials can also be adopted for use as a bioink for bioprinting processes. An ideal bioink should possess proper mechanical, rheological, and biological properties of the target tissues, which are essential to ensure correct functionality of the bioprinted tissues and organs. In this review, we provide an in-depth discussion of the different bioinks currently employed for bioprinting, and outline some future perspectives in their further development.

A comprehensive review of cryogels and their roles in tissue engineering applications

The extracellular matrix is fundamental in providing an appropriate environment for cell interaction and signaling to occur. Replicating such a matrix is advantageous in the support of tissue ingrowth and regeneration through the field of tissue engineering. While scaffolds can be fabricated in many ways, cryogels have recently become a popular approach due to their macroporous structure and durability. Produced through the crosslinking of gel precursors followed by a subsequent controlled freeze/thaw cycle, the resulting cryogel provides a unique, sponge-like structure. Therefore, cryogels have proven advantageous for many tissue engineering applications including roles in bioreactor systems, cell separation, and scaffolding. Specifically, the matrix has been demonstrated to encourage the production of various molecules, such as antibodies, and has also been used for cryopreservation. Cryogels can pose as a bioreactor for the expansion of cell lines, as well as a vehicle for cell separation. Lastly, this matrix has shown excellent potential as a tissue engineered scaffold, encouraging regrowth at numerous damaged tissue sites in vivo. This review will briefly discuss the fabrication of cryogels, with an emphasis placed on their application in various facets of tissue engineering to provide an overview of this unique scaffold's past and future roles.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Cryogels are unique scaffolds produced through the controlled freezing and thawing of a polymer solution. There is an ever-growing body of literature that demonstrates their applicability in the realm of tissue engineering as extracellular matrix analogue scaffolds; with extensive information having been provided regarding the fabrication, porosity, and mechanical integrity of the scaffolds. Additionally, cryogels have been reviewed with respect to their role in bioseparation and as cellular incubators. This all-inclusive view of the roles that cryogels can play is critical to advancing the technology and expanding its niche within biomaterials and tissue engineering research. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review of cryogel applications in tissue engineering that includes specific looks at their growing roles as extracellular matrix analogues, incubators, and in bioseparation processes.