Polymers in High-Efficiency Solar Cells: The Latest Reports

Third-generation solar cells, including dye-sensitized solar cells, bulk-heterojunction solar cells, and perovskite solar cells, are being intensively researched to obtain high efficiencies in converting solar energy into electricity. However, it is also important to note their stability over time and the devices' thermal or operating temperature range. Today's widely used polymeric materials are also used at various stages of the preparation of the complete device-it is worth mentioning that in dye-sensitized solar cells, suitable polymers can be used as flexible substrates counter-electrodes, gel electrolytes, and even dyes. In the case of bulk-heterojunction solar cells, they are used primarily as donor materials; however, there are reports in the literature of their use as acceptors. In perovskite devices, they are used as additives to improve the morphology of the perovskite, mainly as hole transport materials and also as additives to electron transport layers. Polymers, thanks to their numerous advantages, such as the possibility of practically any modification of their chemical structure and thus their physical and chemical properties, are increasingly used in devices that convert solar radiation into electrical energy, which is presented in this paper.

Synergistic Antifungal Study of PEGylated Graphene Oxides and Copper Nanoparticles against Candida albicans

The coupling reactions of polyethylene glycol (PEG) with two different nano-carbonaceous materials, graphene oxide (GO) and expanded graphene oxide (EGO), were achieved by amide bond formations. These reactions yielded PEGylated graphene oxides, GO-PEG and EGO-PEG. Whilst presence of the newly formed amide links (NH-CO) were confirmed by FTIR stretches observed at 1732 cm⁻¹ and 1712 cm⁻¹, the associated Raman D- and G-bands resonated at 1311/1318 cm⁻¹ and 1584/1595 cm⁻¹ had shown the carbonaceous structures in both PEGylated products remain unchanged. Whilst SEM images revealed the nano-sheet structures in all the GO derivatives (GO/EGO and GO-PEG/EGO-PEG), TEM images clearly showed the nano-structures of both GO-PEG and EGO-PEG had undergone significant morphological changes from their starting materials after the PEGylated processes. The successful PEGylations were also indicated by the change of pH values measured in the starting GO/EGO (pH 2.6–3.3) and the PEGylated GO-PEG/EGO-PEG (pH 6.6–6.9) products. Initial antifungal activities of selective metallic nanomaterials (ZnO and Cu) and the four GO derivatives were screened against Candida albicans using the in vitro cut-well method. Whilst the haemocytometer count indicated GO-PEG and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) exhibited the best antifungal effects, the corresponding SEM images showed C. albicans had, respectively, undergone extensive shrinkage and porosity deformations. Synergistic antifungal effects all GO derivatives in various ratio of CuNPs combinations were determined by assessing C. albicans viabilities using broth dilution assays. The best synergistic effects were observed when a 30:70 ratio of GO/GO-PEG combined with CuNPs, where MIC₅₀ 185–225 μm/mL were recorded. Moreover, the decreased antifungal activities observed in EGO and EGO-PEG may be explained by their poor colloidal stability with increasing nanoparticle concentrations.

Aqueous Activated Graphene Dispersions for Deposition of High-Surface Area Supercapacitor Electrodes

High-surface area activated graphene has a three-dimensional porous structure that makes it difficult to prepare dispersions. Here we report a general approach that allows the preparatioon of stable water-based dispersions/inks at concentrations of ≲20 mg/mL based on activated graphene using environmentally friendly formulations. Simple drying of the dispersion on the substrate allows the preparation of electrodes that maintain the high specific surface area of the precursor material (∼1700 m²/g). The electrodes are flexible because of the structure that consists of micrometer-sized activated graphene grains interconnected by carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The electrodes prepared using activated graphene demonstrate performance superior to that of reduced graphene oxide in supercapacitors with KOH and TEA BF₄/acetonitrile electrolytes providing specific capacitance values of 180 and 137 F/g, respectively, at a specific current of 1 A/g. The high surface area of activated graphene in combination with the good conductivity of CNTs allows an energy density of 35.6 Wh/kg and a power density of 42.2 kW/kg to be achieved. The activated graphene dispersions were prepared in liter amounts and are compatible with most industrial deposition methods.

Supramolecular Hydrogels with Properties Tunable by Calcium Ions: A Bio-Inspired Chemical System

Boc-L-DOPA(OBn)₂-OH is a simple synthetic molecule that promotes hydrogelation through electrostatic and π-π stacking interactions. Hydrogelation can occur in alkaline conditions by the use of triggers. Four hydrogels were prepared varying the base, NaOH or Na₂CO₃, and the trigger, GdL or CaCl₂. When the hydrogel formed in the presence of Na₂CO₃ and CaCl₂, the concomitant production of CaCO₃ crystals occurred, generating an organic/inorganic composite material. It was observed that the hydrogel once self-assembled preserved its status even if the trigger, the calcium ions, was removed. The viscoelastic behavior of the hydrogels was analyzed through rheological experiments, which showed a solid-like behavior of the hydrogels. The corresponding xerogels were analyzed mainly by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and synchrotron X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). They showed differences in structure, morphology, and fiber organization according to their source. This research presents a hydrogel system that can be applied as a soft biomaterial for tissue engineering, cosmetics, food, and environmental science. Moreover, it represents a model for biomineralization studies in which the hydrogel structure can act as an analogue of the insoluble matrix that confines the calcification site, provides Ca²⁺, and preserves its structure.

Monolithic 3D printing of embeddable and highly stretchable strain sensors using conductive ionogels

Medical training simulations that utilize 3D-printed, patient-specific tissue models improve practitioner and patient understanding of individualized procedures and capacitate pre-operative, patient-specific rehearsals. The impact of these novel constructs in medical training and pre-procedure rehearsals has been limited, however, by the lack of effectively embedded sensors that detect the location, direction, and amplitude of strains applied by the practitioner on the simulated structures. The monolithic fabrication of strain sensors embedded into lifelike tissue models with customizable orientation and placement could address this limitation. The demonstration of 3D printing of an ionogel as a stretchable, piezoresistive strain sensor embedded in an elastomer is presented as a proof-of-concept of this integrated fabrication for the first time. The significant hysteresis and drift inherent to solid-phase piezoresistive composites and the dimensional instability of low-hysteresis piezoresistive liquids inspired the adoption of a 3D-printable piezoresistive ionogel composed of reduced graphene oxide and an ionic liquid. The shear-thinning rheology of the ionogel obviates the need to fabricate additional structures that define or contain the geometry of the sensing channel. Sensors are printed on and subsequently encapsulated in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a thermoset elastomer commonly used for analog tissue models, to demonstrate seamless fabrication. Strain sensors demonstrate geometry- and strain-dependent gauge factors of 0.54-2.41, a high dynamic strain range of 350% that surpasses the failure strain of most dermal and viscus tissue, low hysteresis (<3.5% degree of hysteresis up to 300% strain) and baseline drift, a single-value response, and excellent fatigue stability (5000 stretching cycles). In addition, we fabricate sensors with stencil-printed silver/PDMS electrodes in place of wires to highlight the potential of seamless integration with printed electrodes. The compositional tunability of ionic liquid/graphene-based composites and the shear-thinning rheology of this class of conductive gels endows an expansive combination of customized sensor geometry and performance that can be tailored to patient-specific, high-fidelity, monolithically fabricated tissue models.

Edge-Functionalized Graphene Nanoplatelets as Metal-Free Electrocatalysts for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

A scalable and low-cost production of graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) is one of the most important challenges for their commercialization. A simple mechanochemical reaction has been developed and applied to prepare various edge-functionalized GnPs (EFGnPs). EFGnPs can be produced in a simple and ecofriendly manner by ball milling of graphite with target substances (X = nonmetals, halogens, semimetals, or metalloids). The unique feature of this method is its use of kinetic energy, which can generate active carbon species by unzipping of graphitic CC bonds in dry conditions (no solvent). The active carbon species efficiently pick up X substance(s), leading to the formation of graphitic CX bonds along the broken edges and the delamination of graphitic layers into EFGnPs. Unlike graphene oxide (GO) and reduced GO (rGO), the preparation of EFGnPs does not involve toxic chemicals, such as corrosive acids and toxic reducing agents. Furthermore, the prepared EFGnPs preserve high crystallinity in the basal area due to their edge-selective functionalization. Considering the available edge X groups that can be selectively employed, the potential applications of EFGnPs are unlimited. In this context, the synthesis, characterizations, and applications of EFGnPs, specifically, as metal-free carbon-based electrocatalysts for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) in both cobalt and iodine electrolytes are reviewed.

Hierarchical Fe3O4-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite grown on NaCl crystals for triiodide reduction in dye-sensitized solar cells

Cost-effective reduced graphene oxide sheets decorated with magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄-rGO) are successfully fabricated via a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique using iron (III) nitrate as an iron precursor, with glucose and CH₄ as carbon sources, and NaCl as a supporting material. TEM analysis and Raman spectroscopy reveal hierarchical nanostructures of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) decorated with Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. Fe K-edge x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectra confirm that the nanoparticles are Fe₃O₄ with a slight shift of the pre-edge peak position toward higher energy suggesting that the fabricated Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles have a higher average oxidation state than that of a standard Fe₃O₄ compound. The hierarchical Fe₃O₄-rGO is found to exhibit an excellent catalytic activity toward the reduction of triiodide to iodide in a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) and can deliver a solar cell efficiency of 6.65%, which is superior to a Pt-based DSSC (6.37%).

The Applications of Polymers in Solar Cells: A Review

The emerging dye-sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, and organic solar cells have been regarded as promising photovoltaic technologies. The device structures and components of these solar cells are imperative to the device’s efficiency and stability. Polymers can be used to adjust the device components and structures of these solar cells purposefully, due to their diversified properties. In dye-sensitized solar cells, polymers can be used as flexible substrates, pore- and film-forming agents of photoanode films, platinum-free counter electrodes, and the frameworks of quasi-solid-state electrolytes. In perovskite solar cells, polymers can be used as the additives to adjust the nucleation and crystallization processes in perovskite films. The polymers can also be used as hole transfer materials, electron transfer materials, and interface layer to enhance the carrier separation efficiency and reduce the recombination. In organic solar cells, polymers are often used as donor layers, buffer layers, and other polymer-based micro/nanostructures in binary or ternary devices to influence device performances. The current achievements about the applications of polymers in solar cells are reviewed and analyzed. In addition, the benefits of polymers for solar cells, the challenges for practical application, and possible solutions are also assessed.

PEGylated nanographene-mediated metallic nanoparticle clusters for surface enhanced Raman scattering-based biosensing

We demonstrate PEGylated nano-sized graphene-induced AuNP clusters, which could serve as SERS nanotags for highly sensitive SERS-based biosensing.

Counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells

This article panoramically reviews the counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells, which is of great significance for the development of photovoltaic and photoelectric devices.

Large-area graphene-based nanofiltration membranes by shear alignment of discotic nematic liquid crystals of graphene oxide

Graphene-based membranes demonstrating ultrafast water transport, precise molecular sieving of gas and solvated molecules shows great promise as novel separation platforms; however, scale-up of these membranes to large-areas remains an unresolved problem. Here we demonstrate that the discotic nematic phase of graphene oxide (GO) can be shear aligned to form highly ordered, continuous, thin films of multi-layered GO on a support membrane by an industrially adaptable method to produce large-area membranes (13 × 14 cm²) in <5 s. Pressure driven transport data demonstrate high retention (>90%) for charged and uncharged organic probe molecules with a hydrated radius above 5 Å as well as modest (30–40%) retention of monovalent and divalent salts. The highly ordered graphene sheets in the plane of the membrane make organized channels and enhance the permeability (71±5 l m⁻² hr⁻¹ bar⁻¹ for 150±15 nm thick membranes).

Membranes made from graphene have ultra-fast water transport and precise molecular sieving properties. Here, the authors show how large-area membranes can be manufactured by a rapid and scalable process based on shear alignment of graphene-oxide liquid crystals for unlocking industrial applications.

Enhanced Electrochemical Catalytic Efficiencies of Electrochemically Deposited Platinum Nanocubes as a Counter Electrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Platinum nanocubes (PtNCs) were deposited onto a fluorine-doped tin oxide glass by electrochemical deposition (ECD) method and utilized as a counter electrode (CE) for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). In this study, we controlled the growth of the crystalline plane to synthesize the single-crystal PtNCs at room temperature. The morphologies and crystalline nanostructure of the ECD PtNCs were examined by field emission scanning electron microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The surface roughness of the ECD PtNCs was examined by atomic force microscopy. The electrochemical properties of the ECD PtNCs were analyzed by cyclic voltammetry, Tafel polarization, and electrochemical impedance spectra. The Pt loading was examined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The DSSCs were assembled via an N719 dye-sensitized titanium dioxide working electrode, an iodine-based electrolyte, and a CE. The photoelectric conversion efficiency (PCE) of the DSSCs with the ECD PtNC CE was examined under the illumination of AM 1.5 (100 mWcm(-2)). The PtNCs in this study presented a single-crystal nanostructure that can raise the electron mobility to let up the charge-transfer impedance and promote the charge-transfer rate. In this work, the electrocatalytic mass activity (MA) of the Pt film and PtNCs was 1.508 and 4.088 mAmg(-1), respectively, and the MA of PtNCs was 2.71 times than that of the Pt film. The DSSCs with the pulse-ECD PtNC CE showed a PCE of 6.48 %, which is higher than the cell using the conventional Pt film CE (a PCE of 6.18 %). In contrast to the conventional Pt film CE which is fabricated by electron beam evaporation method, our pulse-ECD PtNCs maximized the Pt catalytic properties as a CE in DSSCs. The results demonstrated that the PtNCs played a good catalyst for iodide/triiodide redox couple reactions in the DSSCs and provided a potential strategy for electrochemical catalytic applications.

Exfoliation at the liquid/air interface to assemble reduced graphene oxide ultrathin films for a flexible noncontact sensing device

Reduced graphene oxide ultrathin films are fabricated by a reproducible exfoliation method at the liquid/air interface, and they show high transparency, tunable sheet resistance, uniform electric conductivity, and structural homogeneity over a large area. A flexible relative humidity sensing matrix is demonstrated and it is shown to be excellent for close proximity sensing without touching it. This method opens up a novel avenue for future human-machine interaction applications.

Functional gels based on chemically modified graphenes

Chemically modified graphene (CMG) materials have been extensively studied because of their unique structures, excellent properties, and potential applications in energy storage and conversion, catalysis, and environment remediation. However, the unique two-dimensional structure and amphiphilicity make CMG sheets easily restack into irregular aggregates, which greatly reduces their accessible surface area, and thereby deteriorates their performance in practical applications. To exploit their inherent properties fully, CMGs usually have to be fabricated or assembled into functional gels with desired three-dimensional (3D) interconnected porous microstructures. In this review, we summarize the recent achievements in the synthesis of CMG-based functional gels, including hydrogels, organogels, aerogels, and their composites. The mechanisms of gel formation and the applications of these functional gels will also be discussed.

Highly efficient iodide/triiodide dye-sensitized solar cells with gel-coated reduce graphene oxide/single-walled carbon nanotube composites as the counter electrode exhibiting an open-circuit voltage of 0.90 V

To increase the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs), it is crucial to enhance the photovoltaic efficiency of DSCs. Here, we report an effective method to significantly improve the Voc and photovoltaic efficiency of DSCs by using gel-coated composites of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) as the counter electrode. Gel-coated rGO-SWCNT composites outperform Pt, rGO and SWCNTs in catalyzing the reduction of I3(-) and functioning as the counter electrode of DSCs. The Voc and power conversion efficiency (PCE) are 0.86 V and 8.37% for fresh DSCs with the composite of 80 wt % rGO and 20 wt % SWCNTs, significantly higher than those (Voc = 0.77 V, PCE = 7.79%) of control DSCs with Pt fabricated by pyrolysis as the counter electrode. The Voc value of DSCs with rGO-SWCNT composites as the counter electrode further increases to 0.90 V after one week. The high Voc and PCE are ascribed to the synergetic effects of rGO and SWCNTs in reducing the overpotential of the I3(-) reduction. RGO with high specific surface area can have high electrocatalytic activity, whereas SWCNTs give rise to high conductivity for the composites and facilitate the penetration of the redox species into rGO sheets by preventing the agglomeration of the rGO sheets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time to report iodide/triiodide DSCs with both high Voc and PCE.