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Yeh YT, Del Álamo JC, Caffrey CR. Biomechanics of parasite migration within hosts. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:164-175. [PMID: 38172015 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The dissemination of protozoan and metazoan parasites through host tissues is hindered by cellular barriers, dense extracellular matrices, and fluid forces in the bloodstream. To overcome these diverse biophysical impediments, parasites implement versatile migratory strategies. Parasite-exerted mechanical forces and upregulation of the host's cellular contractile machinery are the motors for these strategies, and these are comparably better characterized for protozoa than for helminths. Using the examples of the protozoans, Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium, and the metazoan, Schistosoma mansoni, we highlight how quantitative tools such as traction force and reflection interference contrast microscopies have improved our understanding of how parasites alter host mechanobiology to promote their migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Yeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| | - Juan C Del Álamo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Division of Cardiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 93093, USA
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC0657, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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Worms on a Chip. Bioanalysis 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-6229-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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Weeks JC, Robinson KJ, Lockery SR, Roberts WM. Anthelmintic drug actions in resistant and susceptible C. elegans revealed by electrophysiological recordings in a multichannel microfluidic device. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2018; 8:607-628. [PMID: 30503202 PMCID: PMC6287544 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Many anthelmintic drugs used to treat parasitic nematode infections target proteins that regulate electrical activity of neurons and muscles: ion channels (ICs) and neurotransmitter receptors (NTRs). Perturbation of IC/NTR function disrupts worm behavior and can lead to paralysis, starvation, immune attack and expulsion. Limitations of current anthelmintics include a limited spectrum of activity across species and the threat of drug resistance, highlighting the need for new drugs for human and veterinary medicine. Although ICs/NTRs are valuable anthelmintic targets, electrophysiological recordings are not commonly included in drug development pipelines. We designed a medium-throughput platform for recording electropharyngeograms (EPGs)-the electrical signals emitted by muscles and neurons of the pharynx during pharyngeal pumping (feeding)-in Caenorhabditis elegans and parasitic nematodes. The current study in C. elegans expands previous work in several ways. Detecting anthelmintic bioactivity in drugs, compounds or natural products requires robust, sustained pharyngeal pumping under baseline conditions. We generated concentration-response curves for stimulating pumping by perfusing 8-channel microfluidic devices (chips) with the neuromodulator serotonin, or with E. coli bacteria (C. elegans' food in the laboratory). Worm orientation in the chip (head-first vs. tail-first) affected the response to E. coli but not to serotonin. Using a panel of anthelmintics-ivermectin, levamisole and piperazine-targeting different ICs/NTRs, we determined the effects of concentration and treatment duration on EPG activity, and successfully distinguished control (N2) and drug-resistant worms (avr-14; avr-15; glc-1, unc-38 and unc-49). EPG recordings detected anthelmintic activity of drugs that target ICs/NTRs located in the pharynx as well as at extra-pharyngeal sites. A bus-8 mutant with enhanced permeability was more sensitive than controls to drug treatment. These results provide a useful framework for investigators who would like to more easily incorporate electrophysiology as a routine component of their anthelmintic research workflow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis C Weeks
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 1254 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403-1254, USA.
| | - Kristin J Robinson
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 1254 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403-1254, USA.
| | - Shawn R Lockery
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 1254 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403-1254, USA.
| | - William M Roberts
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 1254 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403-1254, USA.
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Rahman M, Hewitt JE, Van-Bussel F, Edwards H, Blawzdziewicz J, Szewczyk NJ, Driscoll M, Vanapalli SA. NemaFlex: a microfluidics-based technology for standardized measurement of muscular strength of C. elegans. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2187-2201. [PMID: 29892747 PMCID: PMC6057834 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00103k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Muscle strength is a functional measure of quality of life in humans. Declines in muscle strength are manifested in diseases as well as during inactivity, aging, and space travel. With conserved muscle biology, the simple genetic model C. elegans is a high throughput platform in which to identify molecular mechanisms causing muscle strength loss and to develop interventions based on diet, exercise, and drugs. In the clinic, standardized strength measures are essential to quantitate changes in patients; however, analogous standards have not been recapitulated in the C. elegans model since force generation fluctuates based on animal behavior and locomotion. Here, we report a microfluidics-based system for strength measurement that we call 'NemaFlex', based on pillar deflection as the nematode crawls through a forest of pillars. We have optimized the micropillar forest design and identified robust measurement conditions that yield a measure of strength that is independent of behavior and gait. Validation studies using a muscle contracting agent and mutants confirm that NemaFlex can reliably score muscular strength in C. elegans. Additionally, we report a scaling factor to account for animal size that is consistent with a biomechanics model and enables comparative strength studies of mutants. Taken together, our findings anchor NemaFlex for applications in genetic and drug screens, for defining molecular and cellular circuits of neuromuscular function, and for dissection of degenerative processes in disuse, aging, and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizanur Rahman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
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Xu Z, Wang Y, Chen Y, Spalding MH, Dong L. Microfluidic chip for automated screening of carbon dioxide conditions for microalgal cell growth. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2017; 11:064104. [PMID: 29204245 PMCID: PMC5699919 DOI: 10.1063/1.5012508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports on a microfluidic device capable of screening carbon dioxide (CO2) conditions for microalgal cell growth. The device mainly consists of a microfluidic cell culture (MCC) unit, a gas concentration gradient generator (CGG), and an in-line cell growth optical measurement unit. The MCC unit is structured with multiple aqueous-filled cell culture channels at the top layer, multiple CO2 flow channels at the bottom layer, and a commercial hydrophobic gas semipermeable membrane sandwiched between the two channel layers. The CGG unit provides different CO2 concentrations to support photosynthesis of microalgae in the culture channels. The integration of the commercial gas semipermeable membrane into the cell culture device allows rapid mass transport and uniform distribution of CO2 inside the culture medium without using conventional agitation-assisted convection methods, because the diffusion of CO2 from the gas flow channels to the culture channels is fast over a small length scale. In addition, automated in-line monitoring of microalgal cell growth is realized via the optical measurement unit that is able to detect changes in the light intensity transmitted through the cell culture in the culture channels. The microfluidic device also allows a simple grayscale analysis method to quantify the cell growth. The utility of the system is validated by growing Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells under different low or very-low CO2 levels below the nominal ambient CO2 concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Xu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Yingjun Wang
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Yuncong Chen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Martin H Spalding
- Department of Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Liang Dong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
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Zhang M, Li S. Controllable liquid colour-changing lenses with microfluidic channels for vision protection, camouflage and optical filtering based on soft lithography fabrication. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:580. [PMID: 27247877 PMCID: PMC4864802 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2231-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this work, liquid colour-changing lenses for vision protection, camouflage and optical filtering are developed by circulating colour liquids through microfluidic channels on the lenses manually. Soft lithography technology is applied to fabricate the silicone liquid colour-changing layers with microfluidic channels on the lenses instead of mechanical machining. To increase the hardness and abrasion resistance of the silicone colour-changing layers on the lenses, proper fabrication parameters such as 6:1 (mass ration) mixing proportion and 100 °C curing temperature for 2 h are approved for better soft lithography process of the lenses. Meanwhile, a new surface treatment for the irreversible bonding of silicone colour-changing layer with optical resin (CR39) substrate lens by using 5 % (volume ratio) 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane solution is proposed. Vision protection, camouflage and optical filtering functions of the lenses are investigated with different designs of the channels and multi-layer structures. Each application can not only well achieve their functional demands, but also shows the advantages of functional flexibility, rapid prototyping and good controllability compared with traditional ways. Besides optometry, some other designs and applications of the lenses are proposed for potential utility in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- Department of Fluid Control and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Science Park, No. 2, Yikuang Street Nangang District, Box 3040, Harbin, 150001 China
| | - Songjing Li
- Department of Fluid Control and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Science Park, No. 2, Yikuang Street Nangang District, Box 3040, Harbin, 150001 China
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Jung J, Nakajima M, Takeuchi M, Najdovski Z, Huang Q, Fukuda T. Microfluidic Device to Measure the Speed of C. elegans Using the Resistance Change of the Flexible Electrode. MICROMACHINES 2016; 7:E50. [PMID: 30407423 PMCID: PMC6190434 DOI: 10.3390/mi7030050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This work presents a novel method to assess the condition of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) through a resistance measurement of its undulatory locomotion speed inside a micro channel. As the worm moves over the electrode inside the micro channel, the length of the electrode changes, consequently behaving like a strain gauge. In this paper, the electrotaxis was applied for controlling the direction of motion of C. elegans as an external stimulus, resulting in the worm moving towards the cathode of the circuit. To confirm the proposed measurement method, a microfluidic device was developed that employs a sinusoidal channel and a thin polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layer with an electrode. The PDMS layer maintains a porous structure to enable the flexibility of the electrode. In this study, 6 measurements were performed to obtain the speed of an early adult stage C. elegans, where the measured average speed was 0.35 (±0.05) mm/s. The results of this work demonstrate the application of our method to measure the speed of C. elegans undulatory locomotion. This novel approach can be applied to make such measurements without an imaging system, and more importantly, allows directly to detect the locomotion of C. elegans using an electrical signal (i.e., the change in resistance).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaehoon Jung
- Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
- Medical Device Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), 80 Cheombok-Ro, Dong-gu, Daegu 41061, Korea.
| | - Masahiro Nakajima
- Center for Micro-Nano Mechatronics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Masaru Takeuchi
- Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Zoran Najdovski
- Center for Intelligent Systems Research, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Geelong 3216, Australia.
| | - Qiang Huang
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Toshio Fukuda
- Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Meijo University, Shiogamaguchi, Tenpa-ku, Nagoya 468-0073, Japan.
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing 100081, China.
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Jiang H, Xu Z, Aluru MR, Dong L. Plant chip for high-throughput phenotyping of Arabidopsis. LAB ON A CHIP 2014; 14:1281-93. [PMID: 24510109 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc51326b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We report on the development of a vertical and transparent microfluidic chip for high-throughput phenotyping of Arabidopsis thaliana plants. Multiple Arabidopsis seeds can be germinated and grown hydroponically over more than two weeks in the chip, thus enabling large-scale and quantitative monitoring of plant phenotypes. The novel vertical arrangement of this microfluidic device not only allows for normal gravitropic growth of the plants but also, more importantly, makes it convenient to continuously monitor phenotypic changes in plants at the whole organismal level, including seed germination and root and shoot growth (hypocotyls, cotyledons, and leaves), as well as at the cellular level. We also developed a hydrodynamic trapping method to automatically place single seeds into seed holding sites of the device and to avoid potential damage to seeds that might occur during manual loading. We demonstrated general utility of this microfluidic device by showing clear visible phenotypes of the immutans mutant of Arabidopsis, and we also showed changes occurring during plant-pathogen interactions at different developmental stages. Arabidopsis plants grown in the device maintained normal morphological and physiological behaviour, and distinct phenotypic variations consistent with a priori data were observed via high-resolution images taken in real time. Moreover, the timeline for different developmental stages for plants grown in this device was highly comparable to growth using a conventional agar plate method. This prototype plant chip technology is expected to lead to the establishment of a powerful experimental and cost-effective framework for high-throughput and precise plant phenotyping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huawei Jiang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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Johari S, Nock V, Alkaisi MM, Wang W. On-chip analysis of C. elegans muscular forces and locomotion patterns in microstructured environments. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:1699-707. [PMID: 23511608 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc41403e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of force interplays between an organism and its environment is imperative in biological processes. Noticeably scarce from the study of C. elegans locomotion is the measurement of the nematode locomotion forces together with other important locomotive metrics. To bridge the current gap, we present the investigation of C. elegans muscular forces and locomotion metrics (speed, amplitude and wavelength) in one single assay. This assay uses polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) micropillars as force sensing elements and, by variation of the pillar arrangement, introduces microstructure. To show the usefulness of the assay, twelve wild-type C. elegans sample worms were tested to obtain a total of 4665 data points. The experimental results lead to several key findings. These include: (1) maximum force is exerted when the pillar is in contact with the middle part of the worm body, (2) C. elegans locomotion forces are highly dependent on the structure of the surrounding environment, (3) the worms' undulation frequency and locomotion speed increases steadily from the narrow spacing of 'honeycomb' design to the wider spacing of 'lattice' pillar arrangement, and (4) C. elegans maintained their natural sinusoidal movement in the microstructured device, despite the existence of PDMS micropillars. The assay presented here focuses on wild type C. elegans, but the method can be easily applied to its mutants and other organisms. In addition, we also show that, by inverting the measurement device, worm locomotion behaviour can be studied in various substrate environments normally unconducive to flexible pillar fabrication. The quantitative measurements demonstrated in this work further improve the understanding of C. elegans mechanosensation and locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazlina Johari
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Liu P, Martin RJ, Dong L. Micro-electro-fluidic grids for nematodes: a lens-less, image-sensor-less approach for on-chip tracking of nematode locomotion. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:650-61. [PMID: 23254956 PMCID: PMC3587735 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc41174a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports on the development of a lens-less and image-sensor-less micro-electro-fluidic (MEF) approach for real-time monitoring of the locomotion of microscopic nematodes. The technology showed promise for overcoming the constraint of the limited field of view of conventional optical microscopy, with relatively low cost, good spatial resolution, and high portability. The core of the device was microelectrode grids formed by orthogonally arranging two identical arrays of microelectrode lines. The two microelectrode arrays were spaced by a microfluidic chamber containing a liquid medium of interest. As a nematode (e.g., Caenorhabditis elegans) moved inside the chamber, the invasion of part of its body into some intersection regions between the microelectrodes caused changes in the electrical resistance of these intersection regions. The worm's presence at, or absence from, a detection unit was determined by a comparison between the measured resistance variation of this unit and a pre-defined threshold resistance variation. An electronic readout circuit was designed to address all the detection units and read out their individual electrical resistances. By this means, it was possible to obtain the electrical resistance profile of the whole MEF grid, and thus, the physical pattern of the swimming nematode. We studied the influence of a worm's body on the resistance of an addressed unit. We also investigated how the full-frame scanning and readout rates of the electronic circuit and the dimensions of a detection unit posed an impact on the spatial resolution of the reconstructed images of the nematode. Other important issues, such as the manufacturing-induced initial non-uniformity of the grids and the electrotaxic behaviour of nematodes, were also studied. A drug resistance screening experiment was conducted by using the grids with a good resolution of 30 × 30 μm(2). The phenotypic differences in the locomotion behaviours (e.g., moving speed and oscillation frequency extracted from the reconstructed images with the help of software) between the wild-type (N2) and mutant (lev-8) C. elegans worms in response to different doses of the anthelmintic drug, levamisole, were investigated. The locomotive parameters obtained by the MEF grids agreed well with those obtained by optical microscopy. Therefore, this technology will benefit whole-animal assays by providing a structurally simple, potentially cost-effective device capable of tracking the movement and phenotypes of important nematodes in various microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Richard J. Martin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Liang Dong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
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Sivagnanam V, Gijs MAM. Exploring Living Multicellular Organisms, Organs, and Tissues Using Microfluidic Systems. Chem Rev 2013; 113:3214-47. [DOI: 10.1021/cr200432q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin A. M. Gijs
- Laboratory
of Microsystems, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
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Kovarik ML, Ornoff DM, Melvin AT, Dobes NC, Wang Y, Dickinson AJ, Gach PC, Shah PK, Allbritton NL. Micro total analysis systems: fundamental advances and applications in the laboratory, clinic, and field. Anal Chem 2013; 85:451-72. [PMID: 23140554 PMCID: PMC3546124 DOI: 10.1021/ac3031543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L. Kovarik
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Douglas M. Ornoff
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Adam T. Melvin
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Nicholas C. Dobes
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Yuli Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Alexandra J. Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Philip C. Gach
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Pavak K. Shah
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Nancy L. Allbritton
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
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