Immunogold labeling and X-ray fluorescence microscopy reveal enrichment ratios of Cu and Zn, metabolism of APP and amyloid-β plaque formation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

An N-terminal acidic β-sheet domain is responsible for the metal-accumulation properties of amyloid-β protofibrils: a molecular dynamics study

The influence of metal ions on the structure of amyloid- β (Aβ) protofibril models was studied through molecular dynamics to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying metal-induced Aβ aggregation relevant in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The models included 36-, 48-, and 188-mers of the Aβ42 sequence and two disease-modifying variants. Primary structural effects were observed at the N-terminal domain, as it became susceptible to the presence of cations. Specially when β-sheets predominate, this motif orients N-terminal acidic residues toward one single face of the β-sheet, resulting in the formation of an acidic region that attracts cations from the media and promotes the folding of the N-terminal region, with implications in amyloid aggregation. The molecular phenotype of the protofibril models based on Aβ variants shows that the AD-causative D7N mutation promotes the formation of N-terminal β-sheets and accumulates more Zn2+, in contrast to the non-amyloidogenic rodent sequence that hinders the β-sheets and is more selective for Na+ over Zn2+ cations. It is proposed that forming an acidic β-sheet domain and accumulating cations is a plausible molecular mechanism connecting the elevated affinity and concentration of metals in Aβ fibrils to their high content of β-sheet structure at the N-terminal sequence.

Copper binding and protein aggregation: a journey from the brain to the human lens

Metal ions have been implicated in several proteinopathies associated to degenerative and neurodegenerative diseases. While the molecular mechanisms for protein aggregation are still under investigation, recent findings from Cryo-EM point out to polymorphisms in aggregates obtained from patients, as compared to those formed in vitro, suggesting that several factors may impact aggregation in vivo. One of these factors could be the direct binding of metal ions to the proteins engaged in aggregate formation. In this opinion article, three case studies are discussed to address the question of how metal ion binding to a peptide or protein may impact its conformation, folding, and aggregation, and how this may be relevant in understanding the polymorphic nature of the aggregates related to disease. Specifically, the impact of Cu2+ ions in the amyloid aggregation of amyloid-β and amylin (or IAPP- islet amyloid polypeptide) are discussed and then contrasted to the case of Cu2+-induced non-amyloid aggregation of human lens γ-crystallin proteins. For the intrinsically disordered peptides amyloid-β and IAPP, the impact of Cu2+ ion binding is highly dependent on the relative location of the metal binding site and the hydrophobic regions involved in β-sheet folding and amyloid formation. Further structural studies of how Cu2+ binding impacts amyloid aggregation pathways and the molecular structure of the final amyloid fibril, both, in vitro and in vivo, will certainly shed light into the molecular origins of the polymorphisms observed in diseased tissue. Finally, contrasting these cases to that of Cu2+-induced non-amyloid aggregation of γ-crystallins, it is evident that, although the impact in aggregation - and the nature of the aggregate - may differ in each system, at the molecular level there is a competition between metal ion coordination and the stability of β-sheet structures. Considering the importance of the β-sheet fold in biology, it is fundamental to understand the energetics and molecular details behind such competition. This opinion article aims to highlight future research directions in the field that can help tackle the important question of how metal ion binding may impact protein folding and aggregation and how this relates to disease.

The development and use of metal-based probes for X-ray fluorescence microscopy

X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) has become a widely used technique for imaging the concentration and distribution of metal ions in cells and tissues. Recent advances in synchrotron sources, optics, and detectors have improved the spatial resolution of the technique to <10 nm with attogram detection sensitivity. However, to make XFM most beneficial for bioimaging-especially at the nanoscale-the metal ion distribution must be visualized within the subcellular context of the cell. Over the years, a number of approaches have been taken to develop X-ray-sensitive tags that permit the visualization of specific organelles or proteins using XFM. In this review, we examine the types of X-ray fluorophore used, including nanomaterials and metal ions, and the approaches used to incorporate the metal into their target binding site via antibodies, genetically encoded metal-binding peptides, affinity labeling, or cell-specific peptides. We evaluate their advantages and disadvantages, review the scientific findings, and discuss the needs for future development.

Amyloid β Perturbs Cu(II) Binding to the Prion Protein in a Site-Specific Manner: Insights into Its Potential Neurotoxic Mechanisms

Amyloid β (Aβ) is a Cu-binding peptide that plays a key role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. A recent report demonstrated that Aβ disrupts the Cu-dependent interaction between cellular prion protein (PrP^C) and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), inducing overactivation of NMDAR and neurotoxicity. In this context, it has been proposed that Aβ competes for Cu with PrP^C; however, there is no spectroscopic evidence to support this hypothesis. Prion protein (PrP) can bind up to six Cu(II) ions: from one to four at the octarepeat (OR) region, producing low- and high-occupancy modes, and two at the His96 and His111 sites. Additionally, PrP^C is cleaved by α-secretases at Lys110/His111, yielding a new Cu(II)-binding site at the α-cleaved His111. In this study, the competition for Cu(II) between Aβ(1-16) and peptide models for each Cu-binding site of PrP was evaluated using circular dichroism and electron paramagnetic resonance. Our results show that the impact of Aβ(1-16) on Cu(II) coordination to PrP is highly site-specific: Aβ(1-16) cannot effectively compete with the low-occupancy mode at the OR region, whereas it partially removes the metal ion from the high-occupancy modes and forms a ternary OR-Cu(II)-Aβ(1-16) complex. In contrast, Aβ(1-16) removes all Cu(II) ions from the His96 and His111 sites without formation of ternary species. Finally, at the α-cleaved His111 site, Aβ(1-16) yields at least two different ternary complexes depending on the ratio of PrP/Cu(II)/Aβ. Altogether, our spectroscopic results indicate that only the low-occupancy mode at the OR region resists the effect of Aβ, while Cu(II) coordination to the high-occupancy modes and all other tested sites of PrP is perturbed, by either removal of the metal ion or formation of ternary complexes. These results provide important insights into the intricate effect of Aβ on Cu(II) binding to PrP and the potential neurotoxic mechanisms through which Aβ might affect Cu-dependent functions of PrP^C, such as NMDAR modulation.

Unravelling neurological disorders through metallomics-based approaches

Understanding the biological process involving metals and biomolecules in the brain is essential for establishing the origin of neurological disorders, such as neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. From this perspective, this critical review presents recent advances in this topic, showing possible mechanisms involving the disruption of metal homeostasis and the pathogenesis of neurological disorders. We also discuss the main challenges observed in metallomics studies associated with neurological disorders, including those related to sample preparation and analyte quantification.

A Preliminary Study of Cu Exposure Effects upon Alzheimer's Amyloid Pathology

A large body of evidence indicates that dysregulation of cerebral biometals (Fe, Cu, Zn) and their interactions with amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Aβ amyloid may contribute to the Alzheimer's disease (AD) Aβ amyloid pathology. However, the molecular underpinnings associated with the interactions are still not fully understood. Herein we have further validated the exacerbation of Aβ oligomerization by Cu and H2O2 in vitro. We have also reported that Cu enhanced APP translations via its 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of mRNA in SH-SY5Y cells, and increased Aβ amyloidosis and expression of associated pro-inflammatory cytokines such as MCP-5 in Alzheimer's APP/PS1 doubly transgenic mice. This preliminary study may further unravel the pathogenic role of Cu in Alzheimer's Aβ amyloid pathogenesis, warranting further investigation.

CLVFFA-Functionalized Gold Nanoclusters Inhibit Aβ40 Fibrillation, Fibrils' Prolongation, and Mature Fibrils' Disaggregation

The abnormal aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ or A beta) from monomeric proteins into amyloid fibrils is an important pathological contact to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Amyloid beta 40 (Aβ40), the pivotal biomarker of AD, aggregates to form amyloid plaques. For this reason, inhibition of amyloid fibrillation had become a crucial prevention and therapeutic strategy. Usually, LVFFA is the central hydrophobic fragment of Aβ and can inhibit the aggregation of Aβ40. In this work, in order to improve the inhibitory ability of LVFFA, hexapeptide CLVFFA were conjugated at the surface of Au clusters (AuNCs) to manufacture a nanosized inhibitor, AuNCs-CLVFFA. Thioflavin T fluorescence and transmission electron microscope results showed that AuNCs-CLVFFA inhibited Aβ40 fibrillogenesis, fibrils' prolongation, and mature fibrils' disaggregation. Furthermore, AuNCs as the backbone of the inhibitor showed extraordinary inhibition ability for Aβ40 aggregation at a low AuNCs-CLVFFA concentration. Free hexapeptide CLVFFA, at the same concentration, showed almost no inhibition. Additionally, the inhibitor could maintain the optical properties of nanoclusters, and the cell viability demonstrated that the inhibitor had good biocompatibility and may potentially be applied into AD therapy or treatment.

Neurotoxicity Linked to Dysfunctional Metal Ion Homeostasis and Xenobiotic Metal Exposure: Redox Signaling and Oxidative Stress

SIGNIFICANCE

Essential metals such as copper, iron, manganese, and zinc play a role as cofactors in the activity of a wide range of processes involved in cellular homeostasis and survival, as well as during organ and tissue development. Throughout our life span, humans are also exposed to xenobiotic metals from natural and anthropogenic sources, including aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. It is well recognized that alterations in the homeostasis of essential metals and an increased environmental/occupational exposure to xenobiotic metals are linked to several neurological disorders, including neurodegeneration and neurodevelopmental alterations. Recent Advances: The redox activity of essential metals is key for neuronal homeostasis and brain function. Alterations in redox homeostasis and signaling are central to the pathological consequences of dysfunctional metal ion homeostasis and increased exposure to xenobiotic metals. Both redox-active and redox-inactive metals trigger oxidative stress and damage in the central nervous system, and the exact mechanisms involved are starting to become delineated.

CRITICAL ISSUES

In this review, we aim to appraise the role of essential metals in determining the redox balance in the brain and the mechanisms by which alterations in the homeostasis of essential metals and exposure to xenobiotic metals disturb the cellular redox balance and signaling. We focus on recent literature regarding their transport, metabolism, and mechanisms of toxicity in neural systems.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Delineating the specific mechanisms by which metals alter redox homeostasis is key to understand the pathological processes that convey chronic neuronal dysfunction in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 1669-1703.

Mineral status and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity in Alzheimer's disease

The study evaluated the dietary intake of zinc and copper, as measured by plasma and erythrocyte concentrations, the Cu/Zn ratio and measure the erythrocyte superoxide dismutase enzyme (eSOD) activity and the relationship between these markers and the degree of dementia in elderly individuals with and without Alzheimer's Disease (AD). A total of 93 elderly people aged 60-94 years were divided into two groups: with AD (n=44) and without AD (n=49). The NINCDS-ADRDA criteria were used for diagnosing AD, and dementia staging was determined using the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) scale. The dietary intake of Zn and Cu was obtained from a standard 3-day food record. Plasma and erythrocyte concentrations of the minerals were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry and by measuring eSOD activity in an automatic biochemical analyzer. The results showed dietary intake of Zn and Cu above the reference values with no differences observed between the two groups (p>0.05). Plasma and erythrocyte normocupremia as well as alteration in the Zn pool, with its reduced plasma concentrations and high in the erythrocytes, were observed in both groups (p>0.05). The plasma Cu/Zn ratio were not significantly different in patients with and without AD (p>0.05). The eSOD activity was high in both patient groups (p>0.05). However, among elderly patients with AD there was a positive correlation between this marker and dementia severity. According to our study results, we conclude that plasma and erythrocyte concentrations of Cu and Zn, as well as Cu/Zn ratio among elderly individuals is not related to Alzheimer's Disease. However, antioxidant activity of eSOD is associated with dementia severity.

Trace elements during primordial plexiform network formation in human cerebral organoids

Systematic studies of micronutrients during brain formation are hindered by restrictions to animal models and adult post-mortem tissues. Recently, advances in stem cell biology have enabled recapitulation of the early stages of human telencephalon development in vitro. In the present work, we analyzed cerebral organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells by synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence in order to measure biologically valuable micronutrients incorporated and distributed into the exogenously developing brain. Our findings indicate that elemental inclusion in organoids is consistent with human brain tissue and involves P, S, K, Ca, Fe and Zn. Occurrence of different concentration gradients also suggests active regulation of elemental transmembrane transport. Finally, the analysis of pairs of elements shows interesting elemental interaction patterns that change from 30 to 45 days of development, suggesting short- or long-term associations, such as storage in similar compartments or relevance for time-dependent biological processes. These findings shed light on which trace elements are important during human brain development and will support studies aimed to unravel the consequences of disrupted metal homeostasis for neurodevelopmental diseases, including those manifested in adulthood.

Copper Exposure Perturbs Brain Inflammatory Responses and Impairs Clearance of Amyloid-Beta

Copper promotes a toxic buildup of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangle pathology in the brain, and its exposure may increase the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, underlying molecular mechanisms by which copper triggers such pathological changes remain largely unknown. We hypothesized that the copper exposure perturbs brain inflammatory responses, leading to impairment of Aβ clearance from the brain parenchyma. Here, we investigated whether copper attenuated Aβ clearance by microglial phagocytosis or by low-density lipoprotein-related receptor protein-1 (LRP1) dependent transcytosis in both in vitro and in vivo When murine monocyte BV2 cells were exposed to copper, their phagocytic activation induced by fibrillar Aβ or LPS was significantly reduced, while the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, were increased. Interestingly, not only copper itself but also IL-1β, IL-6, or TNF-α were capable of markedly reducing the expression of LRP1 in human microvascular endothelial cells (MVECs) in a concentration-dependent manner. While copper-mediated downregulation of LRP1 was proteasome-dependent, the cytokine-induced loss of LRP1 was proteasome- or lysosome-independent. In the mouse model, copper exposure also significantly elevated neuroinflammation and downregulated LRP1 in the brain, consistent with our in vitro results. Taken together, our findings support the pathological impact of copper on inflammatory responses and Aβ clearance in the brain, which could serve as key mechanisms to explain, in part, the copper exposure as an environmental risk factor for AD.