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Hamley IW. Self-Assembly, Bioactivity, and Nanomaterials Applications of Peptide Conjugates with Bulky Aromatic Terminal Groups. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2023; 6:384-409. [PMID: 36735801 PMCID: PMC9945136 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.2c01041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The self-assembly and structural and functional properties of peptide conjugates containing bulky terminal aromatic substituents are reviewed with a particular focus on bioactivity. Terminal moieties include Fmoc [fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl], naphthalene, pyrene, naproxen, diimides of naphthalene or pyrene, and others. These provide a driving force for self-assembly due to π-stacking and hydrophobic interactions, in addition to the hydrogen bonding, electrostatic, and other forces between short peptides. The balance of these interactions leads to a propensity to self-assembly, even for conjugates to single amino acids. The hybrid molecules often form hydrogels built from a network of β-sheet fibrils. The properties of these as biomaterials to support cell culture, or in the development of molecules that can assemble in cells (in response to cellular enzymes, or otherwise) with a range of fascinating bioactivities such as anticancer or antimicrobial activity, are highlighted. In addition, applications of hydrogels as slow-release drug delivery systems and in catalysis and other applications are discussed. The aromatic nature of the substituents also provides a diversity of interesting optoelectronic properties that have been demonstrated in the literature, and an overview of this is also provided. Also discussed are coassembly and enzyme-instructed self-assembly which enable precise tuning and (stimulus-responsive) functionalization of peptide nanostructures.
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Jin C, Li G, Wu X, Liu J, Wu W, Chen Y, Sasaki T, Chao H, Zhang Y. Robust Packing of a Self‐Assembling Iridium Complex via Endocytic Trafficking for Long‐Term Lysosome Tracking. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202015913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chengzhi Jin
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Guanying Li
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
| | - Xia Wu
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
| | - Jiangping Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Weijun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Yazhou Chen
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
| | - Toshio Sasaki
- Imaging Section Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
| | - Hui Chao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Ye Zhang
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University 1919-1 Tancha Onna-son Okinawa 904-0495 Japan
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Jin C, Li G, Wu X, Liu J, Wu W, Chen Y, Sasaki T, Chao H, Zhang Y. Robust Packing of a Self-Assembling Iridium Complex via Endocytic Trafficking for Long-Term Lysosome Tracking. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:7597-7601. [PMID: 33448553 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202015913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Live cell imaging of lysosome positioning and motility is critical to studying lysosome status and function for pharmacological interventions. To create a super stable lysosomal probe for long-term live cell imaging, we have designed and synthesized an aromatic-peptide-conjugated cyclometalated iridium(III) complex that emits light via π-π stacking oriented self-assembly in water at extremely low concentration. Through endocytic trafficking, self-assemblies are transformed from nanoparticles into sturdily packed networks that are stabilized in lysosomal acidic environment. Upon short time/low dose treatment of the iridium complex at passage 0, live cell lysosomal tracking is applicable beyond the 14th passage of cells with high labelling rate and a mild decline in luminescence intensity. The illuminated lysosomes are trackable using super-resolution imaging to study their response to cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengzhi Jin
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan.,MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Guanying Li
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Xia Wu
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Jiangping Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Weijun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Yazhou Chen
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Toshio Sasaki
- Imaging Section, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Hui Chao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Ye Zhang
- Bioinspired Soft Matter Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
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Ghosh G, Fernández G. pH- and concentration-dependent supramolecular self-assembly of a naturally occurring octapeptide. Beilstein J Org Chem 2020; 16:2017-2025. [PMID: 32874348 PMCID: PMC7445398 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.16.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide-based biopolymers represent highly promising biocompatible materials with multiple applications, such as tailored drug delivery, tissue engineering and regeneration, and as stimuli-responsive materials. Herein, we report the pH- and concentration-dependent self-assembly and conformational transformation of the newly synthesized octapeptide PEP-1. At pH 7.4, PEP-1 forms β-sheet-rich secondary structures into fractal-like morphologies, as verified by circular dichroism (CD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence spectroscopy assay, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Upon changing the pH value (using pH 5.5 and 13.0), PEP-1 forms different types of secondary structures and resulting morphologies due to electrostatic repulsion between charged amino acids. PEP-1 can also form helical or random-coil secondary structures at a relatively low concentration. The obtained pH-sensitive self-assembly behavior of the target octapeptide is expected to contribute to the development of novel drug nanocarrier assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goutam Ghosh
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Correnstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Gustavo Fernández
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Correnstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Chate AV, Rudrawar PP, Bondle GM, Sangeshetti JN. 2-Aminoethanesulfonic acid: An efficient organocatalyst for green synthesis of spirooxindole dihydroquinazolinones and novel 1,2-(dihydroquinazolin-3(4H)isonicotinamides in water. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2019.1692868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Asha V. Chate
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Priyanka P. Rudrawar
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Giribala M. Bondle
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Jaiprakash N. Sangeshetti
- Department of Quality Assurance, Y. B. Chavan College of Pharmacy, Rafiq Zakaria Campus, Aurangabad, India
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Wang Q, Jiang N, Fu B, Huang F, Liu J. Self-assembling peptide-based nanodrug delivery systems. Biomater Sci 2019; 7:4888-4911. [PMID: 31509120 DOI: 10.1039/c9bm01212e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembling peptide-based nanodrug delivery systems (NDDs), consisting of naturally occurring amino acids, not only share the advantages of traditional nanomedicine but also possess the unique properties of excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, flexible responsiveness, specific biological function, and synthetic feasibility. Physical methods, enzymatic reaction, chemical reaction, and biosurface induction can yield versatile peptide-based NDDs; flexible responsiveness is their main advantage. Different functional peptides and abundant covalent modifications endow such systems with precise controllability and multifunctionality. Inspired by the above merits, researchers have taken advantage of the self-assembling peptide-based NDDs and achieved the accurate delivery of drugs to the lesion site. The present review outlines the methods for designing self-assembling peptide-based NDDs for small-molecule drugs, with an emphasis on the different drug delivery strategies and their applications in using peptides and peptide conjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Institute of Radiation Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, P. R. China.
| | - Nan Jiang
- Tianjin chest hospital, Tianjin 300051, P. R. China
| | - Bo Fu
- Tianjin chest hospital, Tianjin 300051, P. R. China
| | - Fan Huang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Institute of Radiation Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, P. R. China.
| | - Jianfeng Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Institute of Radiation Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, P. R. China. and Lab of Functional and Biomedical Nanomaterials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, P. R. China
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Maiti B, Bhattacharjee S, Bhattacharya S. Perfluoroarene induces a pentapeptidic hydrotrope into a pH-tolerant hydrogel allowing naked eye sensing of Ca 2+ ions. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:2223-2230. [PMID: 30656328 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr08126c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembly of a novel thermoresponsive, pyrene-appended oligopeptide sequence VPGKP (PyP) leads to the formation of spherical aggregates in water. The sizes of the globular aggregates of the peptide, PyP, strongly depend on the temperature of its suspension in water and decrease with the decrease in temperature showing a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) phenomenon. Furthermore, a pyrene-octafluoronaphthalene (OFN) 'pair' has been used as a supramolecular synthon to induce hydrogelation of PyP in the presence of an equimolar amount of OFN via complementary quadrupole-quadrupole interactions. The gel shows excellent pH tolerance and thixotropic behavior. Detailed studies suggest the existence of lamellar packing of the gelators in a right-handed helical fashion which yields globular aggregates. The globular aggregates are sticky in nature and form a gel via inter-globular interactions. Addition of Ca2+ ions reinforces the mechanical strength and also reduces the critical gelator concentration of the native gel through coordination with the free -COO- group of the gelator. Therefore, the present hydrogel system could further be used as a naked eye sensor of Ca2+ ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bappa Maiti
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India.
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Restu WK, Nishida Y, Yamamoto S, Ishii J, Maruyama T. Short Oligopeptides for Biocompatible and Biodegradable Supramolecular Hydrogels. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:8065-8074. [PMID: 29897242 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Short Phe-rich oligopeptides, consisting of only four and five amino acids, worked as effective supramolecular hydrogelators for buffer solutions at low gelator concentrations (0.5-1.5 wt %). Among 10 different oligopeptides synthesized, peptide P1 (Ac-Phe-Phe-Phe-Gly-Lys) showed high gelation ability. Transmission electron microscopy observations suggested that the peptide molecules self-assembled into nanofibrous networks, which turned into gels. The hydrogel of peptide P1 showed reversible thermal gel-sol transition and viscoelastic properties typical of a gel. Circular dichroism spectra revealed that peptide P1 formed a β-sheetlike structure, which decreased with increasing temperature. The self-assembly of peptide P1 occurred even in the presence of nutrients in culture media and common surfactants. Escherichia coli and yeast successfully grew on the hydrogel. The hydrogel exhibited low cytotoxicity to animal cells. Finally, we demonstrated that functional compounds can be released from the hydrogel in different manners based on the interaction between the compounds and the hydrogel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Witta Kartika Restu
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Kobe University , 1-1 Rokkodaicho , Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
- Research Center for Chemistry , Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Kawasan Puspiptek Serpong , Tangerang Selatan , Banten 15314 , Indonesia
| | - Yuki Nishida
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Kobe University , 1-1 Rokkodaicho , Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
| | - Shota Yamamoto
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Kobe University , 1-1 Rokkodaicho , Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
| | - Jun Ishii
- Graduate School of Science, Technology and Innovation , Kobe University , 1-1 Rokkodaicho , Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
| | - Tatsuo Maruyama
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Kobe University , 1-1 Rokkodaicho , Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
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Glycosylation-enhanced biocompatibility of the supramolecular hydrogel of an anti-inflammatory drug for topical suppression of inflammation. Acta Biomater 2018; 73:275-284. [PMID: 29660509 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Intravitreal/periocular injection of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) suspension is a common uveitis treatment, but it displays a high risk for serious side effects (e.g., high intraocular pressure, retinal toxicity). We report here an intravitreally injectable thermosensitive glycosylated TA (TA-SA-Glu) hydrogel, formed by covalently conjugating glucosamine (Glu) with succinate TA (TA-SA), for treating uveitis. The TA-SA-Glu hydrogelator forms a supramolecular hydrogel spontaneously in aqueous solution with a minimal gelation concentration of 0.25 wt%. Structural analysis revealed that hydrogen bonds assisted by hydrophobic interaction resulted in self-assembled nanofibers. Rheology analysis demonstrated that this TA-SA-Glu hydrogel exhibited a typical thixotropic property. Sustained release of both TA-SA-Glu and TA from the hydrogel occurred throughout the 3-day in vitro release study. The obtained TA-SA-Glu hardly caused cytotoxicity against ARPE-19 and RAW264.7 cells after 24 h of incubation at drug concentration up to 600 μM. In particular, TA-SA-Glu exhibited a comparable anti-inflammatory efficacy to TA in terms of inhibiting the production of nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 in activated RAW264.7 macrophages. Following a single intravitreal injection, 69 nmol TA-SA-Glu hydrogel caused minimal apparent retinal toxicity, whereas the TA suspension displayed significant effects in terms of localized retinal toxicity. A single intravitreal injection of TA-SA-Glu hydrogel was more effective in controlling inflammatory response than that of the TA suspension treatment, particularly in down-regulating the pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 effector responses for treating experimental autoimmune uveitis. This study strongly indicates that supramolecular TA-SA-Glu hydrogels may represent a new option for posterior uveitis management. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Intravitreal/periocular injection of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) suspension is a common uveitis treatment, but suffers a high risk for serious side effects (e.g., high intraocular pressure, retinal toxicity). We generated an injectable glycosylated triamcinolone acetonide hydrogelator (TA-SA-Glu) hydrogel for treating uveitis. Following a single intravitreal injection, the proposed TA-SA-Glu hydrogel hardly caused apparent retinal toxicity at a dosage of 69 nmol per eye. Furthermore, TA-SA-Glu hydrogel was more effective in controlling non-infectious uveitis over than a TA suspension, particularly in terms of down-regulating the pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 effector responses for treating experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). This study strongly indicates that TA-SA-Glu supramolecular hydrogels may represent a new option for the management of various intraocular inflammations.
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Talloj SK, Cheng B, Weng JP, Lin HC. Glucosamine-Based Supramolecular Nanotubes for Human Mesenchymal Cell Therapy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:15079-15087. [PMID: 29651840 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b03226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we demonstrate an example of glucosamine-based supramolecular hydrogels that can be used for human mesenchymal cell therapy. We designed and synthesized a series of amino acid derivatives based on a strategy of capping d-glucosamine moiety at the C-terminus and fluorinated benzyl group at the N-terminus. From a systematic study on chemical structures, we discovered that the glucosamine-based supramolecular hydrogel [pentafluorobenzyl (PFB)-F-Glu] self-assembled with one-dimensional nanotubular structures at physiological pH. The self-assembly of a newly discovered PFB-F-Glu motif is attributed to the synergistic effect of π-π stacking and extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding network in aqueous medium. Notably, PFB-F-Glu nanotubes are proven to be nontoxic to human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and have been shown to enhance hMSC proliferation while maintaining their pluripotency. Retaining of pluripotency capabilities provides potentially unlimited source of undifferentiated cells for the treatment of future cell therapies. Furthermore, hMSCs cultured on PFB-F-Glu are able to secrete paracrine factors that downregulate profibrotic gene expression in lipopolysaccharide-treated human skin fibroblasts, which demonstrates that PFB-F-Glu nanotubes have the potential to be used for wound healing applications. Overall, this article addresses the importance of chemical design to generate supramolecular biomaterials for stem cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Kumar Talloj
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu 30010 , Taiwan , Republic of China
| | - Bill Cheng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu 30010 , Taiwan , Republic of China
| | - Jen-Po Weng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu 30010 , Taiwan , Republic of China
| | - Hsin-Chieh Lin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu 30010 , Taiwan , Republic of China
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11
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Grygorenko OO, Biitseva AV, Zhersh S. Amino sulfonic acids, peptidosulfonamides and other related compounds. Tetrahedron 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2018.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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12
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Rajbhandary A, Raymond DM, Nilsson BL. Self-Assembly, Hydrogelation, and Nanotube Formation by Cation-Modified Phenylalanine Derivatives. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:5803-5813. [PMID: 28514156 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b00686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl-protected phenylalanine (Fmoc-Phe) derivatives are a privileged class of molecule that spontaneously self-assemble into hydrogel fibril networks. Fmoc-Phe-derived hydrogels are typically formed by dilution of the hydrogelator from an organic cosolvent into water, by dissolution of the hydrogelator under basic aqueous conditions followed by adjustment of the pH with acid, or by other external triggering forces, including sonication and heating. These conditions complicate biological applications of these hydrogels. Herein, we report C-terminal cation-modified Fmoc-Phe derivatives that are positively charged across a broad range of pH values and that can self-assemble and form hydrogel networks spontaneously without the need to adjust pH or to use an organic cosolvent. In addition, these cationic Fmoc-Phe derivatives are found to self-assemble into novel sheet-based nanotube structures at higher concentrations. These nanotube structures are unique to C-terminal cationic Fmoc-Phe derivatives; the parent Fmoc-Phe carboxylic acids form only fibril or worm-like micelle structures. Nanotube formation by the cationic Fmoc-Phe molecules is dependent on positive charge at the C-terminus, since at basic pH where the positive charge is reduced only fibrils/worm-like micelles are formed and nanotube formation is suppressed. These studies provide an important example of Fmoc-Phe derivatives that can elicit hydrogelation without organic cosolvent or pH modification and also provide insight into how subtle modification of structure can perturb the self-assembly pathways of Fmoc-Phe derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annada Rajbhandary
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester , Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
| | - Danielle M Raymond
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester , Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
| | - Bradley L Nilsson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester , Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
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14
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Bian S, Cai H, Cui Y, He M, Cao W, Chen X, Sun Y, Liang J, Fan Y, Zhang X. Temperature and ion dual responsive biphenyl-dipeptide supramolecular hydrogels as extracellular matrix mimic-scaffolds for cell culture applications. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:3667-3674. [DOI: 10.1039/c7tb00576h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Illustration of the gelation process of a new aromatic short peptide gelator based on biphenyl and its application in cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoquan Bian
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Hanxu Cai
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Yani Cui
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Mengmeng He
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Wanxu Cao
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Xuening Chen
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Yong Sun
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Jie Liang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Yujiang Fan
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Xingdong Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
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15
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Wang S, Zhang Y, Li Q, Sun R, Ma L, Li L. Self-Assembly of an Amphiphilic OEG-Linked Glutamide Lipid. Aust J Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1071/ch16127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Amphiphilic peptides with or without oligoethylene glycol (OEG) chains based on 3,4-bis(benzyloxy)benzoic-linked glutamide were designed and their self-assembly was investigated. It was found that the amphiphilic peptide 3 with OEG chains could not only form stable gels in a wide range of solvents, but also showed better solubility in solvents than those without OEG chains. Fibrillar and nanotube structures were found in the gels formed and the width of the fibres could be tuned with added water content. The UV-vis and XRD results suggested that the driving forces for the peptide self-assembly were mainly intermolecular π–π and hydrogen-bonding interactions. These results provide a deeper understanding of the self-assembly mechanism and size control of nanofibrils formed by an OEG-based amphiphilic peptide.
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16
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Gao L, Gao Y, Lin Y, Ju Y, Yang S, Hu J. A Charge-Transfer-Induced Self-Healing Supramolecular Hydrogel. Chem Asian J 2016; 11:3430-3435. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201601216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gao
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide & Agricultural Bioengineering; Centre for R&D of Fine Chemicals; Guizhou University; Guiyang 550025 China
- State Key Lab of Polymer Physics and Chemistry; Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Changchun 130022 China
| | - Yuxia Gao
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology; Ministry of Education Institute of Applied Chemistry; Tsinghua University; Beijing 100084 China
| | - Yuan Lin
- State Key Lab of Polymer Physics and Chemistry; Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Changchun 130022 China
| | - Yong Ju
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology; Ministry of Education Institute of Applied Chemistry; Tsinghua University; Beijing 100084 China
| | - Song Yang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide & Agricultural Bioengineering; Centre for R&D of Fine Chemicals; Guizhou University; Guiyang 550025 China
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Lab of Polymer Physics and Chemistry; Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Changchun 130022 China
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Ekiz MS, Cinar G, Khalily MA, Guler MO. Self-assembled peptide nanostructures for functional materials. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:402002. [PMID: 27578525 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/40/402002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Nature is an important inspirational source for scientists, and presents complex and elegant examples of adaptive and intelligent systems created by self-assembly. Significant effort has been devoted to understanding these sophisticated systems. The self-assembly process enables us to create supramolecular nanostructures with high order and complexity, and peptide-based self-assembling building blocks can serve as suitable platforms to construct nanostructures showing diverse features and applications. In this review, peptide-based supramolecular assemblies will be discussed in terms of their synthesis, design, characterization and application. Peptide nanostructures are categorized based on their chemical and physical properties and will be examined by rationalizing the influence of peptide design on the resulting morphology and the methods employed to characterize these high order complex systems. Moreover, the application of self-assembled peptide nanomaterials as functional materials in information technologies and environmental sciences will be reviewed by providing examples from recently published high-impact studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melis Sardan Ekiz
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, National Nanotechnology Research Center (UNAM), Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800 Turkey
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Hsu SM, Wu FY, Cheng H, Huang YT, Hsieh YR, Tseng DTH, Yeh MY, Hung SC, Lin HC. Functional Supramolecular Polymers: A Fluorescent Microfibrous Network in a Supramolecular Hydrogel for High-Contrast Live Cell-Material Imaging in 3D Environments. Adv Healthc Mater 2016; 5:2406-12. [PMID: 27390271 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201600342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A new bottom-up strategy based on aromatic peptide amphiphile is developed for a high-contrast visualization of 3D live cell-material imaging-something that has been difficult to achieve previously because of the problems associated with the diffraction of light by the nanosized peptide materials and the aggregation-caused quenching of aggregated π-conjugated fluorophores in the nanostructures. This study reports an example of a novel supramolecular hydrogelator, naphthaleneimide-phenylalanine (NI-Phe), which forms a self-supporting hydrogel displaying a unique microfibrous network and promising aggregation-induced emission characteristics at pH 7.4. The storage modulus of the NI-Phe gel supports the mass of a cell for 3D cell culturing. This work illustrates a new dopant-free supramolecular approach, complementary to well-established doping procedures that should facilitate the development of live cell imaging in 3D scaffolding materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Min Hsu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Fang-Yi Wu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Hsun Cheng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tang Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ru Hsieh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Dion Tzu-Huan Tseng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
| | - Mei-Yu Yeh
- Integrative Stem Cell Center; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung 40447 Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science; China Medical University; Taichung 40402 Taiwan
| | - Shih-Chieh Hung
- Integrative Stem Cell Center; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung 40447 Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Science; China Medical University; Taichung 40402 Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Chieh Lin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; National Chiao Tung University; Hsinchu 30010 Taiwan
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19
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20
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Zhao Y, Deng L, Yang W, Wang D, Pambou E, Lu Z, Li Z, Wang J, King S, Rogers S, Xu H, Lu JR. Tuning One‐Dimensional Nanostructures of Bola‐Like Peptide Amphiphiles by Varying the Hydrophilic Amino Acids. Chemistry 2016; 22:11394-404. [PMID: 27362441 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201601309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yurong Zhao
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Li Deng
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Wei Yang
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Dong Wang
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Elias Pambou
- School of Physics and Astronomy The University of Manchester Oxford Road Manchester M13 9PL UK
| | - Zhiming Lu
- School of Physics and Astronomy The University of Manchester Oxford Road Manchester M13 9PL UK
| | - Zongyi Li
- School of Physics and Astronomy The University of Manchester Oxford Road Manchester M13 9PL UK
| | - Jiqian Wang
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Stephen King
- ISIS Pulsed Neutron Source STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford Didcot OX11 0QX UK
| | - Sarah Rogers
- ISIS Pulsed Neutron Source STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford Didcot OX11 0QX UK
| | - Hai Xu
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology China University of Petroleum (East China) Changjiang West Road Qingdao 266580 P. R. China
| | - Jian R. Lu
- School of Physics and Astronomy The University of Manchester Oxford Road Manchester M13 9PL UK
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Kirkham S, Hamley IW, Smith AM, Gouveia RM, Connon CJ, Reza M, Ruokolainen J. A self-assembling fluorescent dipeptide conjugate for cell labelling. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 137:104-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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22
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Du X, Zhou J, Shi J, Xu B. Supramolecular Hydrogelators and Hydrogels: From Soft Matter to Molecular Biomaterials. Chem Rev 2015; 115:13165-307. [PMID: 26646318 PMCID: PMC4936198 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1266] [Impact Index Per Article: 140.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In this review we intend to provide a relatively comprehensive summary of the work of supramolecular hydrogelators after 2004 and to put emphasis particularly on the applications of supramolecular hydrogels/hydrogelators as molecular biomaterials. After a brief introduction of methods for generating supramolecular hydrogels, we discuss supramolecular hydrogelators on the basis of their categories, such as small organic molecules, coordination complexes, peptides, nucleobases, and saccharides. Following molecular design, we focus on various potential applications of supramolecular hydrogels as molecular biomaterials, classified by their applications in cell cultures, tissue engineering, cell behavior, imaging, and unique applications of hydrogelators. Particularly, we discuss the applications of supramolecular hydrogelators after they form supramolecular assemblies but prior to reaching the critical gelation concentration because this subject is less explored but may hold equally great promise for helping address fundamental questions about the mechanisms or the consequences of the self-assembly of molecules, including low molecular weight ones. Finally, we provide a perspective on supramolecular hydrogelators. We hope that this review will serve as an updated introduction and reference for researchers who are interested in exploring supramolecular hydrogelators as molecular biomaterials for addressing the societal needs at various frontiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewen Du
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Junfeng Shi
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Bing Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
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Yuan D, Shi J, Du X, Zhou N, Xu B. Supramolecular Glycosylation Accelerates Proteolytic Degradation of Peptide Nanofibrils. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:10092-5. [PMID: 26237170 PMCID: PMC4941208 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b05888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
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Despite
the recent consensus that the oligomers of amyloid peptides
or aberrant proteins are cytotoxic species, there is still a need
for an effective way to eliminate the oligomers. Based on the fact
that normal proteins are more glycosylated than pathogenic proteins,
we show that a conjugate of nucleobase, peptide, and saccharide binds
to peptides from molecular nanofibrils and accelerates the proteolytic
degradation of the molecular nanofibrils. As the first example of
the use of supramolecular glycosylation to dissociate molecular nanofibrils
and to accelerate the degradation of peptide aggregates, this work
illustrates a new method that ultimately may lead to an effective
approach for degrading cytotoxic oligomers of peptides or aberrant
proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yuan
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Junfeng Shi
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Xuewen Du
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Ning Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
| | - Bing Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, United States
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Shen HM, Zhou WJ, Wu HK, Yu WB, Ai N, Ji HB, Shi HX, She YB. Metal-free chemoselective oxidation of sulfides to sulfoxides catalyzed by immobilized taurine and homotaurine in aqueous phase at room temperature. Tetrahedron Lett 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2015.05.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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25
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Zhang Y, Zhou N, Shi J, Pochapsky SS, Pochapsky TC, Zhang B, Zhang X, Xu B. Unfolding a molecular trefoil derived from a zwitterionic metallopeptide to form self-assembled nanostructures. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6165. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
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26
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Miao Q, Wu Z, Hai Z, Tao C, Yuan Q, Gong Y, Guan Y, Jiang J, Liang G. Bipyridine hydrogel for selective and visible detection and absorption of Cd(2+). NANOSCALE 2015; 7:2797-2804. [PMID: 25584838 DOI: 10.1039/c4nr06467d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we report for the first time the use of bipyridine-based hydrogel for selective and visible detection and absorption of Cd(2+). At low concentrations, hydrogelator 1 was applied for selective detection of Cd(2+) in vitro and in living cells with high sensitivity. In the absence of metal ions, 1 is nonfluorescent at 470 nm. Upon addition of metal ions, 1 selectively coordinates to Cd(2+), causing an 86-fold increase of fluorescence intensity at 470 nm via the chelation enhanced fluorescence (CHEF) effect, as revealed by first-principles simulations. At 1.5 wt% and pH 5.5, 1 self-assembles into nanofibers to form hydrogel Gel I. Since Cd(2+) could actively participate in the hydrogelation and promote the self-assembly, we also successfully applied Gel I for visible detection and absorption of Cd(2+). With these excellent properties, Gel I is expected to be explored as one type of versatile biomaterial for not only environmental monitoring but also for pollution treatment in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqing Miao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China.
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Cheetham A, Zhang P, Lin YA, Lin R, Cui H. Synthesis and Self-Assembly of a Mikto-Arm Star Dual Drug Amphiphile Containing both Paclitaxel and Camptothecin. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:7316-7326. [PMID: 25667746 PMCID: PMC4319564 DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01084a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembly of anticancer therapeutics into discrete nanostructures provides an innovative way to develop a self-delivering nanomedicine with a high, quantitative drug loading. We report here the synthesis and assembly of a mikto-arm star dual drug amphiphile (DA) containing both a bulky paclitaxel (PTX) and a planar camptothecin (CPT). The two anti-cancer drugs of interest were stochastically conjugated to a β-sheet forming peptide (Sup35) and under physiologically-relevant conditions the dual DA could spontaneously associate into supramolecular filaments with a fixed 41% total drug loading (29% PTX and 12% CPT). Transmission electron microscopy imaging and circular dichroism spectroscopy studies reveal that the bulkiness of the PTX, as well as the π-π interaction preference between the CPT units, has a significant impact on the assembly kinetics, molecular level packing, and nanostructure morphology and stability. We found that the DA containing two PTX units assembled into non-filamentous micelle-like structures, in contrast to the filamentous structures formed by the hetero dual DA and the DA containing two CPTs. The hetero dual DA was found to effectively release the two anticancer agents, exhibiting superior cytotoxicity against PTX-resistant cervical cancer cells. The presented work offers a potential method to generate well-defined entwined filamentous nanostructures and provides the basis for a future combination therapy platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.G. Cheetham
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - P. Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - Y.-A. Lin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - R. Lin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - H. Cui
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
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Cui H, Cheetham AG, Pashuck ET, Stupp SI. Amino acid sequence in constitutionally isomeric tetrapeptide amphiphiles dictates architecture of one-dimensional nanostructures. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:12461-8. [PMID: 25144245 PMCID: PMC4156871 DOI: 10.1021/ja507051w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The switching of two adjacent amino acids can lead to differences in how proteins fold thus affecting their function. This effect has not been extensively explored in synthetic peptides in the context of supramolecular self-assembly. Toward this end, we report here the use of isomeric peptide amphiphiles as molecular building blocks to create one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures. We show that four peptide amphiphile isomers, with identical composition but a different sequence of their four amino acids, can form drastically different types of 1D nanostructures under the same conditions. We found that molecules with a peptide sequence of alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids such as VEVE and EVEV self-assemble into flat nanostructures that can be either helical or twisted. On the other hand, nonalternating isomers such as VVEE and EEVV result in the formation of cylindrical nanofibers. Furthermore, we also found that when the glutamic acid is adjacent to the alkyl tail the supramolecular assemblies appear to be internally flexible compared to those with valine as the first amino acid. These results clearly demonstrate the significance of peptide side chain interactions in determining the architectures of supramolecular assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honggang Cui
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Medicine, and Department of
Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Andrew G. Cheetham
- Simpson
Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - E. Thomas Pashuck
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Medicine, and Department of
Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Samuel I. Stupp
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Medicine, and Department of
Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Simpson
Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
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