A droplet-based pH regulator in microfluidics

pH Regulator on Digital Microfluidics with Pico-Dosing Technique

Real-time pH control on-chip is a crucial factor for cell-based experiments in microfluidics, yet difficult to realize. In this paper, we present a flexible pH regulator on a digital microfluidic (DMF) platform. The pico-dosing technology, which can generate and transfer satellite droplets, is presented to deliver alkali/acid into the sample solution to change the pH value of the sample. An image analysis method based on ImageJ is developed to calculate the delivered volume and an on-chip colorimetric method is proposed to determine the pH value of the sample solution containing the acid-base indicator. The calculated pH values show consistency with the measured ones. Our approach makes the real-time pH control of the on-chip biological experiment more easy to control and flexible.

Electrochemical pH regulation in droplet microfluidics

We report a method for electrochemical pH regulation in microdroplets generated in a microfluidic device. The key finding is that controlled quantities of reagents can be generated electrochemically in moving microdroplets confined within a microfluidic channel. Additionally, products generated at the anode and cathode can be isolated within descendant microdroplets. Specifically, ∼5 nL water-in-oil microdroplets are produced at a T-junction and then later split into two descendant droplets. During splitting, floor-patterned microelectrodes drive water electrolysis within the aqueous microdroplets to produce H⁺ and OH^-. This results in a change in the pHs of the descendant droplets. The droplet pH can be regulated over a range of 5.9 to 7.7 by injecting controlled amounts of charge into the droplets. When the injected charge is between -6.3 and 54.5 nC nL^-1, the measured pH of the resulting droplets is within ±0.1 pH units of that predicted based on the magnitude of the injected charge. This technique can likely be adapted to electrogeneration of other reagents within microdroplets.

Microfabricated electrochemical sensing devices

Electrochemistry provides possibilities to realize smart microdevices of the next generation with high functionalities. Electrodes, which constitute major components of electrochemical devices, can be formed by various microfabrication techniques, and integration of the same (or different) components for that purpose is not difficult. Merging this technique with microfluidics can further expand the areas of application of the resultant devices. To augment the development of next generation devices, it will be beneficial to review recent technological trends in this field and clarify the directions required for moving forward. Even when limiting the discussion to electrochemical microdevices, a variety of useful techniques should be considered. Therefore, in this review, we attempted to provide an overview of all relevant techniques in this context in the hope that it can provide useful comprehensive information.

A Diffusion-Based pH Regulator in Laminar Flows with Smartphone-Based Colorimetric Analysis

A strategy for an on-chip pH regulator is demonstrated computationally and experimentally, based on the diffusion characteristics of aqueous ionic solutions. Micro-flows with specific pH values are formed based on the diffusion behaviors of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in laminar flows. The final achieved pH value and its gradient in the channel can be regulated by the amount of ions transported between laminar flows, and the experimental results can be further generalized based on the normalized Nernst-Planck equation. A smartphone was applied as an image capture and analysis instrument to quantify pH values of liquids in a colorimetric detection process, with monotonic response range of ~1⁻13.

An electrochemical platform for localized pH control on demand

Solution pH is a powerful tool for regulating many kinds of chemical activity, but is generally treated as a static property defined by a pre-selected buffer. Introducing dynamic control of pH in space, time, and magnitude can enable richer and more efficient chemistries, but is not feasible with traditional methods of titration or buffer exchange. Recent reports have featured electrochemical strategies for modifying bulk pH in constrained volumes, but only demonstrate switching between two preset values and omit spatial control entirely. Here, we use a combination of solution-borne quinones and galvanostatic excitation to enable quantitative control of pH environments that are highly localized to an electrode surface. We demonstrate highly reproducible acidification and alkalinization with up to 0.1 pH s(-1) (±0.002 pH s(-1)) rate of change across the dynamic range of our pH sensor (pH 4.5 to 7.5) in buffered solutions. Using dynamic current control, we generate and sustain 3 distinct pH microenvironments simultaneously to within ±0.04 pH for 13 minutes in a single solution, and we leverage these microenvironments to demonstrate spatially-resolved, pH-driven control of enzymatic activity. In addition to straightforward applications of spatio-temporal pH control (e.g. efficiently studying pH-dependencies of chemical interactions), the technique opens completely new avenues for implementing complex systems through dynamic control of enzyme activation, protein binding affinity, chemical reactivity, chemical release, molecular self-assembly, and many more pH-controlled processes.

Label-free high-throughput detection and content sensing of individual droplets in microfluidic systems

This study reports a microwave-microfluidics integrated approach capable of performing droplet detection at high-throughput as well as content sensing of individual droplets without chemical or physical intrusion. The sensing system consists of a custom microwave circuitry and a spiral-shaped microwave resonator that is integrated with microfluidic chips where droplets are generated. The microwave circuitry is very cost effective by using off-the-shelf components only. It eliminates the need for bulky benchtop equipment, and provides a compact, rapid and sensitive tool compatible for Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) platforms. To evaluate the resonator's sensing capability, it was first applied to differentiate between single-phase fluids which are aqueous solutions with different concentrations of glucose and potassium chloride respectively by measuring its reflection coefficient as a function of frequency. The minimum concentration assessed was 0.001 g ml(-1) for potassium chloride and 0.01 g ml(-1) for glucose. In the droplet detection experiments, it is demonstrated that the microwave sensor is able to detect droplets generated at as high throughput as 3.33 kHz. Around two million droplets were counted over a period of ten minutes without any missing. For droplet sensing experiments, pairs of droplets that were encapsulated with biological materials were generated alternatively in a double T-junction configuration and clearly identified by the microwave sensor. The sensed biological materials include fetal bovine serum, penicillin antibiotic mixture, milk (2% mf) and d-(+)-glucose. This system has significant advantages over optical detection methods in terms of its cost, size and compatibility with LOC settings and also presents significant improvements over other electrical-based detection techniques in terms of its sensitivity and throughput.

An on-demand nanofluidic concentrator

Preconcentration of biomolecules by electrokinetic trapping at the nano/microfluidic interface has been extensively studied due to its significant efficiency. Conventionally, sample preconcentration takes place in continuous flow and therefore suffers from diffusion and dispersion. Encapsulation of the preconcentrated sample into isolated droplets offers a superior way to preserve the sample concentration for further analysis. Nevertheless, the rationale for an optimal design to obviate the sample dilution prior to encapsulation is still lacking. Herein, we propose a pressure-assisted strategy for positioning the concentrated sample plug directly at the ejecting nozzle, which greatly eliminates the concentration decline during sample ejection. A distinctive mechanism for this plug localization was elucidated by two-dimensional numerical simulations. Based on the simulation results, we developed an on-demand nanofluidic concentrator in which the nanochannels were facilely generated through lithography-free nanocracking on a polystyrene substrate. By wisely implementing an on-demand droplet generation module, our system can adaptively encapsulate the highly concentrated sample and effectively enhance the long-term stability. We experimentally demonstrated the preconcentration of a fluorescently labelled biomolecule, bovine serum albumin (BSA), by using an amplification factor of 10(4). We showed that, by adjusting the applied voltage, accumulation time, and pulsed pressure imposed on the control microchannel, our system can generate a droplet of the desired volume with a target sample concentration at a prescribed time. This study not only provides insights into the previously unidentified role of assisted pressure in sample positioning, but also offers an avenue for varied requirements in low-abundance biomolecule detection and analysis.

Microfluidic tactile sensors for three-dimensional contact force measurements

A microfluidic tactile sensing device has been first reported for three-dimensional contact force measurement utilizing the microfluidic interfacial capacitive sensing (MICS) principle. Consisting of common and differential microfluidic sensing elements and topologically micro-textured surfaces, the microfluidic sensing devices are intended not only to resolve normal mechanical loads but also to measure forces tangent to the surface upon contact. In response to normal or shear loads, the membrane surface deforms the underlying sensing elements uniformly or differentially. The corresponding variation in interfacial capacitance can be detected from each sensing unit, from which the direction and magnitude of the original load can be determined. Benefiting from the highly sensitive and adaptive MICS principle, the microfluidic sensor is capable of detecting normal forces with a device sensitivity of 29.8 nF N(-1) in a 7 mm × 7 mm × 0.52 mm package, which is at least a thousand times higher than its solid-state counterparts to our best knowledge. In addition, the microfluidic sensing elements enable facilitated relaxation response/time in the millisecond range (up to 12 ms). To demonstrate the utility and flexibility of the three-dimensional microfluidic sensor, it has been successfully configured into a fingertip-amounted setting for continuous tracing of the fingertip movement and contact force measurement.

Tunable electrochemical pH modulation in a microchannel monitored via the proton-coupled electro-oxidation of hydroquinone

Electrochemistry is a promising tool for microfluidic systems because it is relatively inexpensive, structures are simple to fabricate, and it is straight-forward to interface electronically. While most widely used in microfluidics for chemical detection or as the transduction mechanism for molecular probes, electrochemical methods can also be used to efficiently alter the chemical composition of small (typically <100 nl) microfluidic volumes in a manner that improves or enables subsequent measurements and sample processing steps. Here, solvent (H2O) electrolysis is performed quantitatively at a microchannel Pt band electrode to increase microchannel pH. The change in microchannel pH is simultaneously tracked at a downstream electrode by monitoring changes in the i-V characteristics of the proton-coupled electro-oxidation of hydroquinone, thus providing real-time measurement of the protonated forms of hydroquinone from which the pH can be determined in a straightforward manner. Relative peak heights for protonated and deprotonated hydroquinone forms are in good agreement with expected pH changes by measured electrolysis rates, demonstrating that solvent electrolysis can be used to provide tunable, quantitative pH control within a microchannel.