1
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Park JH, Lee GY, Song Z, Bong JH, Kim HR, Kang MJ, Pyun JC. A vertically paired electrode for redox cycling and its application to immunoassays. Analyst 2023; 148:1349-1361. [PMID: 36857647 DOI: 10.1039/d2an01648f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical immunoassay based on the redox cycling method was presented using vertically paired electrodes (VPEs), which were fabricated using poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) as an electrode material and parylene-C as a dielectric layer. For the application to immunoassays, different electrochemical properties of PEDOT:PSS were analyzed for the redox reaction of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB, the chromogenic substrate for enzyme-immunoassays) at different pH conditions, including the conductivity (σ), electron transfer rate constant (kapp), and double-layer capacitance (Cdl). The influencing factors on the sensitivity of redox cycling based on VPE based on PEDOT:PSS were analyzed for the redox reaction of TMB, such as the electrode gap and number of electrode pairs. Computer simulation was also performed for the redox cycling results based on VPEs, which had limitations in fabrication, such as VPEs with an electrode gap of less than 100 nm and more than five electrode pairs. Finally, the redox cycling based on VPE was applied to the medical diagnosis of human hepatitis-C virus (hHCV) using a commercial ELISA kit. The sensitivity of the redox cycling method for the medical diagnosis of hHCV was compared with conventional assay methods, such as TMB-based chromogenic detection, luminol-based chemiluminescence assay, and a rapid test kit (lateral flow immunoassay).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Hee Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea.
| | - Ga-Yeon Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea. .,Electronic Convergence Division, Korea Institute of Ceramic Engineering and Technology (KICET), Jinju, Korea
| | - Zhiquan Song
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea.
| | - Ji-Hong Bong
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea.
| | - Hong-Rae Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea.
| | - Min-Jung Kang
- Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Korea
| | - Jae-Chul Pyun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-Ro, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 03722, Korea.
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2
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Jaugstetter M, Blanc N, Kratz M, Tschulik K. Electrochemistry under confinement. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:2491-2543. [PMID: 35274639 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00789k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Although the term 'confinement' regularly appears in electrochemical literature, elevated by continuous progression in the research of nanomaterials and nanostructures, up until today the various aspects of confinement considered in electrochemistry are rather scattered individual contributions outside the established disciplines in this field. Thanks to a number of highly original publications and the growing appreciation of confinement as an overarching link between different exciting new research strategies, 'electrochemistry under confinement' is the process of forming a research discipline of its own. To aid the development a coherent terminology and joint basic concepts, as crucial factors for this transformation, this review provides an overview on the different effects on electrochemical processes known to date that can be caused by confinement. It also suggests where boundaries to other effects, such as nano-effects could be drawn. To conceptualize the vast amount of research activities revolving around the main concepts of confinement, we define six types of confinement and select two of them to discuss the state of the art and anticipated future developments in more detail. The first type concerns nanochannel environments and their applications for electrodeposition and for electrochemical sensing. The second type covers the rather newly emerging field of colloidal single entity confinement in electrochemistry. In these contexts, we will for instance address the influence of confinement on the mass transport and electric field distributions and will link the associated changes in local species concentration or in the local driving force to altered reaction kinetics and product selectivity. Highlighting pioneering works and exciting recent developments, this educational review does not only aim at surveying and categorizing the state-of-the-art, but seeks to specifically point out future perspectives in the field of confinement-controlled electrochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Jaugstetter
- Analytical Chemistry II, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Niclas Blanc
- Analytical Chemistry II, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Markus Kratz
- Analytical Chemistry II, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Kristina Tschulik
- Analytical Chemistry II, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
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3
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Capacitive biosensor based on vertically paired electrodes for the detection of SARS-CoV-2. Biosens Bioelectron 2022; 202:113975. [PMID: 35042131 PMCID: PMC8741629 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.113975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vertically paired electrodes (VPEs) with multiple electrode pairs were developed for the enhancement of capacitive measurements by optimizing the electrode gap and number of electrode pairs. The electrode was fabricated using a conductive polymer layer of PEDOT:PSS instead of Ag and Pt metal electrodes to increase the VPE fabrication yield because the PEDOT:PSS layer could be effectively etched using a reactive dry etching process. In this study, sensitivity enhancement was realized by decreasing the electrode gap and increasing the number of VPE electrode pairs. Such an increase in sensitivity according to the electrode gap and the number of electrode pairs was estimated using a model analyte for an immunoassay. Additionally, a computer simulation was performed using VPEs with different electrode gaps and numbers of VPE electrode pairs. Finally, VPEs with multiple electrode pairs were applied for SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (NP) detection. The capacitive biosensor based on the VPE with immobilized anti-SARS-CoV-2 NP was applied for the specific detection of SARS-CoV-2 in viral cultures. Using viral cultures of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and CoV-strain 229E, the limit of detection (LOD) was estimated to satisfy the cutoff value (dilution factor of 1/800) for the medical diagnosis of COVID-19, and the assay results from the capacitive biosensor were compared with commercial rapid kit based on a lateral flow immunoassay.
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4
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Fu K, Kwon SR, Han D, Bohn PW. Single Entity Electrochemistry in Nanopore Electrode Arrays: Ion Transport Meets Electron Transfer in Confined Geometries. Acc Chem Res 2020; 53:719-728. [PMID: 31990518 PMCID: PMC8020881 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical measurements conducted in confined volumes provide a powerful and direct means to address scientific questions at the nexus of nanoscience, biotechnology, and chemical analysis. How are electron transfer and ion transport coupled in confined volumes and how does understanding them require moving beyond macroscopic theories? Also, how do these coupled processes impact electrochemical detection and processing? We address these questions by studying a special type of confined-volume architecture, the nanopore electrode array, or NEA, which is designed to be commensurate in size with physical scaling lengths, such as the Debye length, a concordance that offers performance characteristics not available in larger scale structures.The experiments described here depend critically on carefully constructed nanoscale architectures that can usefully control molecular transport and electrochemical reactivity. We begin by considering the experimental constraints that guide the design and fabrication of zero-dimensional nanopore arrays with multiple embedded electrodes. These zero-dimensional structures are nearly ideal for exploring how permselectivity and unscreened ion migration can be combined to amplify signals and improve selectivity by enabling highly efficient redox cycling. Our studies also highlight the benefits of arrays, in that molecules escaping from a single nanopore are efficiently captured by neighboring pores and returned to the population of active redox species being measured, benefits that arise from coupling ion accumulation and migration. These tools for manipulating redox species are well-positioned to explore single molecule and single particle electron transfer events through spectroelectrochemistry, studies which are enabled by the electrochemical zero-mode waveguide (ZMW), a special hybrid nanophotonic/nanoelectronic architecture in which the lower ring electrode of an NEA nanopore functions both as a working electrode to initiate electron transfer reactions and as the optical cladding layer of a ZMW. While the work described here is largely exploratory and fundamental, we believe that the development of NEAs will enable important applications that emerge directly from the unique coupled transport and electron-transfer capabilities of NEAs, including in situ molecular separation and detection with external stimuli, redox-based electrochemical rectification in individually encapsulated nanopores, and coupled sorters and analyzers for nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyu Fu
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94306
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94306
| | - Seung-Ryong Kwon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Donghoon Han
- Department of Chemistry, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do, 14662 Republic of Korea
| | - Paul W. Bohn
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
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5
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Fu K, Han D, Ma C, Bohn PW. Electrochemistry at single molecule occupancy in nanopore-confined recessed ring-disk electrode arrays. Faraday Discuss 2018; 193:51-64. [PMID: 27711896 DOI: 10.1039/c6fd00062b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical reactions at nanoscale structures possess unique characteristics, e.g. fast mass transport, high signal-to-noise ratio at low concentration, and insignificant ohmic losses even at low electrolyte concentrations. These properties motivate the fabrication of high density, laterally ordered arrays of nanopores, embedding vertically stacked metal-insulator-metal electrode structures and exhibiting precisely controlled pore size and interpore spacing for use in redox cycling. These nanoscale recessed ring-disk electrode (RRDE) arrays exhibit current amplification factors, AFRC, as large as 55-fold with Ru(NH3)62/3+, indicative of capture efficiencies at the top and bottom electrodes, Φt,b, exceeding 99%. Finite element simulations performed to investigate the concentration distribution of redox species and to assess operating characteristics are in excellent agreement with experiment. AFRC increases as the pore diameter, at constant pore spacing, increases in the range 200-500 nm and as the pore spacing, at constant pore diameter, decreases in the range 1000-460 nm. Optimized nanoscale RRDE arrays exhibit a linear current response with concentration ranging from 0.1 μM to 10 mM and a small capacitive current with scan rate up to 100 V s-1. At the lowest concentrations, the average pore occupancy is 〈n〉 ∼ 0.13 molecule establishing productive electrochemical signals at occupancies at and below the single molecule level in these nanoscale RRDE arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyu Fu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
| | - Donghoon Han
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Chaoxiong Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
| | - Paul W Bohn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA. and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
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6
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Wu MS, Chen WA. Numerical simulation of differential cyclic voltammetry for amplified and separate detection of redox couples using dual-plate microgap device. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2017.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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7
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Fu K, Bohn PW. Nanochannel Arrays for Molecular Sieving and Electrochemical Analysis by Nanosphere Lithography Templated Graphoepitaxy of Block Copolymers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:24908-24916. [PMID: 28661651 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b06794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The ability to design, fabricate, and manipulate materials at the nanoscale is fundamental to the quest to develop technologies to assemble nanometer-scale pieces into larger-scale components and materials, thereby transferring unique nanometer-scale properties to macroscopic objects. In this work, we describe a new approach to the fabrication of highly ordered, ultrahigh density nanochannel arrays that employs nanosphere lithography to template the graphoepitaxy of polystyrene-polydimethylsiloxane, diblock copolymers. By optimizing the well-controlled solvent vapor annealing, overcoating conditions, and the subsequent reactive ion etching processes, silica nanochannel (SNC) arrays with areal densities, ρA, approaching 1000 elements μm-2, are obtained over macroscopic scales. The integrity and functionality of the SNC arrays was tested by using them as permselective ion barriers to nanopore-confined disk electrodes. The nanochannels allow cations to pass to the disk electrode but reject anions, as demonstrated by cyclic voltammetry. This ion gating behavior can be reversed from cation-permselective to anion-permselective by chemically inverting the surface charge from negative to positive. Furthermore, the conformal SNC array structures obtained could easily be lifted, detached, and transferred to another substrate, preserving the hierarchical organization while transferring the nanostructure-derived properties to a different substrate. These results demonstrate how nanoscale behavior can be replicated over macroscale distances, using electrochemical analysis as a model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyu Fu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Paul W Bohn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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8
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Adly N, Feng L, Krause KJ, Mayer D, Yakushenko A, Offenhäusser A, Wolfrum B. Flexible Microgap Electrodes by Direct Inkjet Printing for Biosensing Application. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201600016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nouran Adly
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Lingyan Feng
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
- Materials Genome Institute; Shanghai University; 200444 Shanghai China
| | - Kay J. Krause
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Dirk Mayer
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Alexey Yakushenko
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Andreas Offenhäusser
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Bernhard Wolfrum
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA - Fundamentals of Future Information Technology; Forschungszentrum Jülich; 52425 Jülich Germany
- Neuroelectronics; Munich School of Bioengineering; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering; Technical University of Munich (TUM) & BCCN Munich; Boltzmannstrasse 11 85748 Garching Germany
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9
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Aoki KJ, Chen J, Zeng X, Wang Z. Decrease in the double layer capacitance by faradaic current. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra01770g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes the reverse of the well-known double layer effects on charge transfer kinetics in the relationship between a cause and an effect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jingyuan Chen
- Department of Applied Physics
- University of Fukui
- Fukui
- 910-0017 Japan
| | - Xiangdong Zeng
- Department of Applied Physics
- University of Fukui
- Fukui
- 910-0017 Japan
| | - Zhaohao Wang
- Department of Applied Physics
- University of Fukui
- Fukui
- 910-0017 Japan
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10
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Adly NY, Bachmann B, Krause KJ, Offenhäusser A, Wolfrum B, Yakushenko A. Three-dimensional inkjet-printed redox cycling sensor. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra27170g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical amplification through redox cycling in an all-inkjet-printed device utilizing four different functional inks.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Y. Adly
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8)
- JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- Forschungszentrum Jülich
- 52425 Jülich
- Germany
| | - B. Bachmann
- Neuroelectronics
- MSB
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- Technical University of Munich (TUM) & BCCN Munich
- Garching
| | - K. J. Krause
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8)
- JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- Forschungszentrum Jülich
- 52425 Jülich
- Germany
| | - A. Offenhäusser
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8)
- JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- Forschungszentrum Jülich
- 52425 Jülich
- Germany
| | - B. Wolfrum
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8)
- JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- Forschungszentrum Jülich
- 52425 Jülich
- Germany
| | - A. Yakushenko
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8)
- JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- Forschungszentrum Jülich
- 52425 Jülich
- Germany
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11
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Hammond JL, Rosamond MC, Sivaraya S, Marken F, Estrela P. Fabrication of a Horizontal and a Vertical Large Surface Area Nanogap Electrochemical Sensor. SENSORS 2016; 16:s16122128. [PMID: 27983655 PMCID: PMC5191108 DOI: 10.3390/s16122128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nanogap sensors have a wide range of applications as they can provide accurate direct detection of biomolecules through impedimetric or amperometric signals. Signal response from nanogap sensors is dependent on both the electrode spacing and surface area. However, creating large surface area nanogap sensors presents several challenges during fabrication. We show two different approaches to achieve both horizontal and vertical coplanar nanogap geometries. In the first method we use electron-beam lithography (EBL) to pattern an 11 mm long serpentine nanogap (215 nm) between two electrodes. For the second method we use inductively-coupled plasma (ICP) reactive ion etching (RIE) to create a channel in a silicon substrate, optically pattern a buried 1.0 mm × 1.5 mm electrode before anodically bonding a second identical electrode, patterned on glass, directly above. The devices have a wide range of applicability in different sensing techniques with the large area nanogaps presenting advantages over other devices of the same family. As a case study we explore the detection of peptide nucleic acid (PNA)−DNA binding events using dielectric spectroscopy with the horizontal coplanar device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jules L Hammond
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Mark C Rosamond
- School of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Siva Sivaraya
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Frank Marken
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Pedro Estrela
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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12
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Lin X, Yang Q, Yan F, Zhang B, Su B. Gated Molecular Transport in Highly Ordered Heterogeneous Nanochannel Array Electrode. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:33343-33349. [PMID: 27934137 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b13772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In biology, all protein channels share a common feature of containing narrow pore regions with hydrophobic functional groups and selectivity filter regions abundant with charged residues, which work together to account for fast and selective mass transport in and out of cells. In this work, an ultrathin layer of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was evaporated on the top orifices of charged silica nanochannels (2-3 nm in diameter and 60 nm in length) vertically attached to the electrode surface, and the resulting structure is designated as heterogeneous silica nanochannels (HSNs). As evidenced by voltammetric studies, the transport of ionic species in these HSNs was controlled by both hydrophobic rejection and electrostatic force arising from the top PDMS layer and from the bottom silica nanochannels, respectively. Anionic species encountered both hydrophobic rejection and electrostatic repulsion forces, and thus, their transport was strongly prohibited, while the transport of cationic species was permitted once the electrostatic attraction exceeded the hydrophobic rejection. Moreover, the magnitude of hydrophobic force could be regulated by the PDMS layer thickness, and that of the electrostatic force can be modulated by the salt concentration, solution pH, or applied voltage. It was demonstrated that the HSNs could be activated from an OFF state (no ion can transport) to an ON state (only cation transport occurs) by decreasing the salt concentration, increasing the solution pH, or applying negative voltages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyu Lin
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058, P.R. China
| | - Qian Yang
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058, P.R. China
| | - Fei Yan
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058, P.R. China
| | - Bowen Zhang
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058, P.R. China
| | - Bin Su
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058, P.R. China
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13
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Redox cycling with ITO electrodes separated by an ultrathin silica nanochannel membrane. Electrochem commun 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2016.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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14
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Wolfrum B, Kätelhön E, Yakushenko A, Krause KJ, Adly N, Hüske M, Rinklin P. Nanoscale Electrochemical Sensor Arrays: Redox Cycling Amplification in Dual-Electrode Systems. Acc Chem Res 2016; 49:2031-40. [PMID: 27602780 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Micro- and nanofabriation technologies have a tremendous potential for the development of powerful sensor array platforms for electrochemical detection. The ability to integrate electrochemical sensor arrays with microfluidic devices nowadays provides possibilities for advanced lab-on-a-chip technology for the detection or quantification of multiple targets in a high-throughput approach. In particular, this is interesting for applications outside of analytical laboratories, such as point-of-care (POC) or on-site water screening where cost, measurement time, and the size of individual sensor devices are important factors to be considered. In addition, electrochemical sensor arrays can monitor biological processes in emerging cell-analysis platforms. Here, recent progress in the design of disease model systems and organ-on-a-chip technologies still needs to be matched by appropriate functionalities for application of external stimuli and read-out of cellular activity in long-term experiments. Preferably, data can be gathered not only at a singular location but at different spatial scales across a whole cell network, calling for new sensor array technologies. In this Account, we describe the evolution of chip-based nanoscale electrochemical sensor arrays, which have been developed and investigated in our group. Focusing on design and fabrication strategies that facilitate applications for the investigation of cellular networks, we emphasize the sensing of redox-active neurotransmitters on a chip. To this end, we address the impact of the device architecture on sensitivity, selectivity as well as on spatial and temporal resolution. Specifically, we highlight recent work on redox-cycling concepts using nanocavity sensor arrays, which provide an efficient amplification strategy for spatiotemporal detection of redox-active molecules. As redox-cycling electrochemistry critically depends on the ability to miniaturize and integrate closely spaced electrode systems, the fabrication of suitable nanoscale devices is of utmost importance for the development of this advanced sensor technology. Here, we address current challenges and limitations, which are associated with different redox cycling sensor array concepts and fabrication approaches. State-of-the-art micro- and nanofabrication technologies based on optical and electron-beam lithography allow precise control of the device layout and have led to a new generation of electrochemical sensor architectures for highly sensitive detection. Yet, these approaches are often expensive and limited to clean-room compatible materials. In consequence, they lack possibilities for upscaling to high-throughput fabrication at moderate costs. In this respect, self-assembly techniques can open new routes for electrochemical sensor design. This is true in particular for nanoporous redox cycling sensor arrays that have been developed in recent years and provide interesting alternatives to clean-room fabricated nanofluidic redox cycling devices. We conclude this Account with a discussion of emerging fabrication technologies based on printed electronics that we believe have the potential of transforming current redox cycling concepts from laboratory tools for fundamental studies and proof-of-principle analytical demonstrations into high-throughput devices for rapid screening applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Wolfrum
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- Neuroelectronics,
IMETUM, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 11, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Enno Kätelhön
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Alexey Yakushenko
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Kay J. Krause
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Nouran Adly
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Martin Hüske
- Institute
of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Philipp Rinklin
- Neuroelectronics,
IMETUM, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 11, 85748 Garching, Germany
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15
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He D, Yan J, Zhu F, Zhou Y, Mao B, Oleinick A, Svir I, Amatore C. Enhancing the Bipolar Redox Cycling Efficiency of Plane-Recessed Microelectrode Arrays by Adding a Chemically Irreversible Interferent. Anal Chem 2016; 88:8535-41. [PMID: 27490270 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The individual electrochemical anodic responses of dopamine (DA), epinephrine (EP), and pyrocatechol (CT) were investigated at arrays of recessed gold disk-microelectrodes arrays (MEAs) covered by a gold plane electrode and compared to those of their binary mixture (CT and EP) when the top-plane electrode was operated as a bipolar electrode or as a collector. The interferent species (EP) displays a chemically irreversible wave over the same potential range as the chemically reversible ones of DA or CT. As expected, in the generator-collector (GC) mode, EP did not contribute to the redox cycling amplification that occurred only for DA or CT. Conversely, in the bipolar mode, the presence of EP drastically increased the bipolar redox cycling efficiency of DA and CT. This evidenced that the chemically irreversible oxidation of EP at the anodic poles of the top plane floating electrode provided additional electron fluxes that were used to more efficiently reduce the oxidized DA or CT species at the cathodic poles. This suggests an easy experimental strategy for enhancing the bipolar efficiency of MEAs up to reach a performance identical to that achieved when the same MEAs are operated in a GC mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingwen He
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University , Xiamen, Fujian 361005, PR China
| | - Jiawei Yan
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University , Xiamen, Fujian 361005, PR China
| | - Feng Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University , Xiamen, Fujian 361005, PR China
| | - Yongliang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University , Xiamen, Fujian 361005, PR China
| | - Bingwei Mao
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University , Xiamen, Fujian 361005, PR China
| | - Alexander Oleinick
- CNRS UMR 8640 "PASTEUR", Sorbonne Universités - UPMC Univ Paris 06, Ecole Normale Supérieure - PSL Research University , Département de Chimie, 24 rue Lhomond, Paris 75005, France
| | - Irina Svir
- CNRS UMR 8640 "PASTEUR", Sorbonne Universités - UPMC Univ Paris 06, Ecole Normale Supérieure - PSL Research University , Département de Chimie, 24 rue Lhomond, Paris 75005, France
| | - Christian Amatore
- CNRS UMR 8640 "PASTEUR", Sorbonne Universités - UPMC Univ Paris 06, Ecole Normale Supérieure - PSL Research University , Département de Chimie, 24 rue Lhomond, Paris 75005, France
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16
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Ma C, Xu W, Wichert WRA, Bohn PW. Ion Accumulation and Migration Effects on Redox Cycling in Nanopore Electrode Arrays at Low Ionic Strength. ACS NANO 2016; 10:3658-64. [PMID: 26910572 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Ion permselectivity can lead to accumulation in zero-dimensional nanopores, producing a significant increase in ion concentration, an effect which may be combined with unscreened ion migration to improve sensitivity in electrochemical measurements, as demonstrated by the enormous current amplification (∼2000-fold) previously observed in nanopore electrode arrays (NEA) in the absence of supporting electrolyte. Ionic strength is a key experimental factor that governs the magnitude of the additional current amplification (AFad) beyond simple redox cycling through both ion accumulation and ion migration effects. Separate contributions from ion accumulation and ion migration to the overall AFad were identified by studying NEAs with varying geometries, with larger AFad values being achieved in NEAs with smaller pores. In addition, larger AFad values were observed for Ru(NH3)6(3/2+) than for ferrocenium/ferrocene (Fc(+)/Fc) in aqueous solution, indicating that coupling efficiency in redox cycling can significantly affect AFad. While charged species are required to observe migration effects or ion accumulation, poising the top electrode at an oxidizing potential converts neutral species to cations, which can then exhibit current amplification similar to starting with the cation. The electrical double layer effect was also demonstrated for Fc/Fc(+) in acetonitrile and 1,2-dichloroethane, producing AFad up to 100× at low ionic strength. The pronounced AFad effects demonstrate the advantage of coupling redox cycling with ion accumulation and migration effects for ultrasensitive electrochemical measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxiong Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Wei Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - William R A Wichert
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Paul W Bohn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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17
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18
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Kanno Y, Ino K, Shiku H, Matsue T. A local redox cycling-based electrochemical chip device with nanocavities for multi-electrochemical evaluation of embryoid bodies. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:4404-4414. [PMID: 26481771 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc01016k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical device, which consists of electrode arrays, nanocavities, and microwells, was developed for multi-electrochemical detection with high sensitivity. A local redox cycling-based electrochemical (LRC-EC) system was used for multi-electrochemical detection and signal amplification. The LRC-EC system consists of n(2) sensors with only 2n bonding pads for external connection. The nanocavities fabricated in the sensor microwells enable significant improvement of the signal amplification compared with the previous devices we have developed. The present device was successfully applied for evaluation of embryoid bodies (EBs) from embryonic stem (ES) cells via electrochemical measurements of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in the EBs. In addition, the EBs were successfully trapped in the sensor microwells of the device using dielectrophoresis (DEP) manipulation, which led to high-throughput cell analysis. This device is considered to be useful for multi-electrochemical detection and imaging for bioassays including cell analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kanno
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Japan.
| | - Kosuke Ino
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Japan.
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Japan.
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Japan. and WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Japan
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19
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Kanno Y, Ino K, Inoue KY, Şen M, Suda A, Kunikata R, Matsudaira M, Abe H, Li CZ, Shiku H, Matsue T. Feedback mode-based electrochemical imaging of conductivity and topography for large substrate surfaces using an LSI-based amperometric chip device with 400 sensors. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2015.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
A review of sensing applications based on plasmonic nanopores is given. Many new types of plasmonic nanopores have recently been fabricated, including pores penetrating multilayers of thin films, using a great variety of fabrication techniques based on either serial nanolithography or self-assembly. One unique advantage with nanopores compared to other plasmonic sensors is that sample liquids can flow through the surface, which increases the rate of binding and improves the detection limit under certain conditions. Also, by utilizing the continuous metal films, electrical control can be implemented for electrochemistry, dielectrophoresis and resistive heating. Much effort is still spent on trying to improve sensor performance in various ways, but the literature uses inconsistent benchmark parameters. Recently plasmonic nanopores have been used to analyse targets of high clinical or academic interest. Although this is an important step forward, one should probably reflect upon whether the same results could have been achieved with another optical technique. Overall, this critical review suggests that the research field would benefit by focusing on applications where plasmonic nanopores truly can offer unique advantages over similar techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas B Dahlin
- Chalmers University of Technology, Dept. of Applied Physics, Fysikgränd 3, 41296 Göteborg, Sweden.
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21
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Haywood DG, Saha-Shah A, Baker LA, Jacobson SC. Fundamental studies of nanofluidics: nanopores, nanochannels, and nanopipets. Anal Chem 2014; 87:172-87. [PMID: 25405581 PMCID: PMC4287834 DOI: 10.1021/ac504180h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Haywood
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University , Bloomington, Indiana 47405-7102, United States
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Krause KJ, Kätelhön E, Lemay SG, Compton RG, Wolfrum B. Sensing with nanopores--the influence of asymmetric blocking on electrochemical redox cycling current. Analyst 2014; 139:5499-503. [PMID: 25237677 DOI: 10.1039/c4an01401d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Nanoporous redox cycling devices are highly efficient tools for the electrochemical sensing of redox-active molecules. By using a redox-active mediator, this concept can be exploited for the detection of molecular binding events via blocking of the redox cycling current within the nanopores. Here, we investigate the influence of different blocking scenarios inside a nanopore on the resulting redox cycling current. Our analysis is based on random walk simulations and finite element calculations. We distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric pore blocking and show that the current decrease is more pronounced in the case of asymmetric blocking reflecting the diffusion-driven pathway of the redox-active molecules. Using random walk simulations, we further study the impact of pore blocking in the frequency domain and identify relevant features of the power spectral density, which are of particular interest for sensing applications based on fluctuation analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay J Krause
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
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23
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Gross AJ, Marken F. Boron-doped diamond dual-plate microtrench electrode for generator–collector chloride/chlorine sensing. Electrochem commun 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2014.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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24
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Kätelhön E, Krause KJ, Mathwig K, Lemay SG, Wolfrum B. Noise phenomena caused by reversible adsorption in nanoscale electrochemical devices. ACS NANO 2014; 8:4924-4930. [PMID: 24694343 DOI: 10.1021/nn500941g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We theoretically investigate reversible adsorption in electrochemical devices on a molecular level. To this end, a computational framework is introduced, which is based on 3D random walks including probabilities for adsorption and desorption events at surfaces. We demonstrate that this approach can be used to investigate adsorption phenomena in electrochemical sensors by analyzing experimental noise spectra of a nanofluidic redox cycling device. The evaluation of simulated and experimental results reveals an upper limit for the average adsorption time of ferrocene dimethanol of ∼200 μs. We apply our model to predict current noise spectra of further electrochemical experiments based on interdigitated arrays and scanning electrochemical microscopy. Since the spectra strongly depend on the molecular adsorption characteristics of the detected analyte, we can suggest key indicators of adsorption phenomena in noise spectroscopy depending on the geometric aspect of the experimental setup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enno Kätelhön
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich , 52425 Jülich, Germany
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25
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Hüske M, Offenhäusser A, Wolfrum B. Nanoporous dual-electrodes with millimetre extensions: parallelized fabrication and area effects on redox cycling. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:11609-16. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp01027b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Novel fabrication techniques lead to highly sensitive electrochemical sensors (left). The large-area characteristics of redox-cycling within the sensor's nanopores further cause potential-dependent variations of the overall analyte concentration (right).
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Hüske
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- For-schungszentrum Jülich
- D-52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Andreas Offenhäusser
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- For-schungszentrum Jülich
- D-52425 Jülich, Germany
- IV. Institute of Physics
- RWTH Aachen University
| | - Bernhard Wolfrum
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology
- For-schungszentrum Jülich
- D-52425 Jülich, Germany
- IV. Institute of Physics
- RWTH Aachen University
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