1
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Wang Y, Li Z, Niu K, Xia W, Giuntoli A. A Molecular Dynamics Study of Mechanical and Conformational Properties of Conjugated Polymer Thin Films. Macromolecules 2024; 57:5130-5142. [PMID: 38882199 PMCID: PMC11171455 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.4c00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Understanding and predicting the mechanical and conformational properties of conjugated polymer (CP) thin films are a central focus in flexible electronic device research. Employing molecular dynamics simulations with an architecture-transferable chemistry-specific coarse-grained (CG) model of poly(3-alkylthiophene)s (P3ATs), developed by using an energy renormalization approach, we investigate the mechanical and conformational behavior of P3AT thin films during deformation. The density profiles and measures of local mobility identify a softer interfacial layer for all films, the thickness of which does not depend on M w or side-chain length. Remarkably, Young's modulus measured via nanoindentation is more sensitive to M w than for tensile tests, which we attribute to distinct deformation mechanisms. High-M w thin films show increased toughness, whereas longer side-chain lengths of P3AT resulted in lower Young's modulus. Fractures in low-M w thin films occur through chain pullout due to insufficient chain entanglement and crazing in the plastic region. Importantly, stretching promoted both chain alignment and longer conjugation lengths of P3AT, potentially enhancing its electronic properties. For instance, at room temperature, stretching P3HT thin films to 150% increases the conjugated length of P3HT thin films from 2.7 nm to 4.7 nm, aligning with previous experimental findings and all-atom simulation results. Furthermore, high-M w thin films display elevated friction forces due to the chain accumulation on the indenter, with negligible variations in the friction coefficient across all thin film systems. These findings offer valuable insights that enhance our understanding and guide the rational design of CP thin films in flexible electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zhaofan Li
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Kangmin Niu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Wenjie Xia
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Andrea Giuntoli
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
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2
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Boehm BJ, McNeill CR, Huang DM. Competing single-chain folding and multi-chain aggregation pathways control solution-phase aggregate morphology of organic semiconducting polymers. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:18070-18086. [PMID: 36448546 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr04750k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the solution-phase behaviour of organic semiconducting polymers is important for systematically improving the performance of devices based on solution-processed thin films of these molecules. Conventional polymer theory predicts that polymer conformations become more compact as solvent quality decreases, but recent experiments have shown the high-performance organic-semiconducting polymer P(NDI2OD-T2) to form extended rod-like aggregates much larger than a single chain in poor solvents, with the formation of these extended aggregates correlated with enhanced electron mobility in films deposited from these solutions. We explain the unexpected formation of extended aggregates using a novel coarse-grained simulation model of P(NDI2OD-T2) that we have developed to study the effect of solvent quality on its solution-phase behaviour. In poor solvents, we find that aggregation through only a few monomers gives effectively inseparable chains, leading to the formation of extended structures of partially overlapping chains via non-equilibrium assembly. This behaviour requires that multi-chain aggregation occurs faster than chain folding, which we show is the case for the chain lengths and concentrations shown experimentally to form rod-like aggregates. This kinetically controlled process introduces a dependence of aggregate structure on concentration, chain length, and chain flexibility, which we show is able to reconcile experimental findings and is generalisable to the solution-phase assembly of other semiflexible polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda J Boehm
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
| | - Christopher R McNeill
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - David M Huang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
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3
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Spann R, Boucher D. Impact of molecular weight on the solubility parameters of poly(3‐hexylthiophene). JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20220573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rashawn Spann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry College of Charleston Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - David Boucher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry College of Charleston Charleston South Carolina USA
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4
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Peroukidis SD, Stott IP, Mavrantzas VG. Coarse-Grained Model Incorporating Short- and Long-Range Effective Potentials for the Fast Simulation of Micelle Formation in Solutions of Ionic Surfactants. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:5555-5569. [PMID: 35838193 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c02751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A coarse-grained model comprising short- and long-range effective potentials, parametrized with the iterative Boltzmann inversion (IBI) method, is presented for capturing micelle formation in aqueous solutions of ionic surfactants using as a model system sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). In the coarse-grained (CG) model, each SDS molecule is represented as a sequence of four beads while each water molecule is modeled as a single bead. The proposed CG scheme involves ten potential energy functions: four of them describe bonded interactions and control the distribution functions of intramolecular degrees of freedom (bond lengths, valence angles, and dihedrals) along an SDS molecule while the other six account for intermolecular interactions between pairs of SDS and water beads and control the radial distribution functions. The nonbonded effective potentials between coarse-grained SDS molecules extend up to about 12 nm and capture structural and morphological features of the micellar solution both at short and long distances. The long-range component of these potentials, in particular, captures correlations between surfactant molecules belonging to different micelles and is essential to describe ordering associated with micelle formation. A new strategy is introduced for determining the effective potentials through IBI by using information (target distribution functions) extracted from independent atomistic simulations of a micellar reference system (a salt-free SDS solution at total surfactant concentration cT equal to 103 mM, temperature T equal to 300 K, and pressure P equal to 1 atm) obtained through a multiscale approach described in an earlier study. It employs several optimization steps for bonded and nonbonded interactions and a gradual parametrization of the short- and long-range components of the latter, followed by reparametrization of the bonded ones. The proposed CG model can reproduce remarkably accurately the microstructure and morphology of the reference system within only a few hours of computational time. It is therefore very promising for future studies of structural and morphological behavior of various liquid surfactant formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavros D Peroukidis
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras and FORTH-ICE/HT, GR 26504, Patras, Greece
| | - Ian P Stott
- Unilever Research and Development Port Sunlight, Bebington CH63 3JW, United Kingdom
| | - Vlasis G Mavrantzas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras and FORTH-ICE/HT, GR 26504, Patras, Greece.,Particle Technology Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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5
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Wang Y, Li Z, Niu K, Xia W. Energy renormalization for coarse-graining of thermomechanical behaviors of conjugated polymer. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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6
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Savedra RML, de Morais MNB, Siqueira MF. On the microstructures of the bulk of P3HT amorphous films obtained from two protocols: Insights from molecular dynamics simulations. J Mol Graph Model 2022; 117:108279. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2022.108279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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7
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Casalegno M, Famulari A, Meille SV. Modeling of Poly(3-hexylthiophene) and Its Oligomer’s Structure and Thermal Behavior with Different Force Fields: Insights into the Phase Transitions of Semiconducting Polymers. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mosè Casalegno
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, I-20131 Milano (MI), Italy
| | - Antonino Famulari
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, I-20131 Milano (MI), Italy
| | - Stefano Valdo Meille
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, I-20131 Milano (MI), Italy
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8
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Reisjalali M, Manurung R, Carbone P, Troisi A. Development of hybrid coarse-grained atomistic models for rapid assessment of local structuring of polymeric semiconductors. MOLECULAR SYSTEMS DESIGN & ENGINEERING 2022; 7:294-305. [PMID: 35646391 PMCID: PMC9074845 DOI: 10.1039/d1me00165e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Decades of work in the field of computational study of semiconducting polymers using atomistic models illustrate the challenges of generating equilibrated models for this class of materials. While adopting a coarse-grained model can be helpful, the process of developing a suitable model is particularly non-trivial and time-consuming for semiconducting polymers due to a large number of different interactions with some having an anisotropic nature. This work introduces a procedure for the rapid generation of a hybrid model for semiconducting polymers where atoms of secondary importance (those in the alkyl side chains) are transformed into coarse-grained beads to reduce the computational cost of generating an equilibrated structure. The parameters are determined from easy-to-equilibrate simulations of very short oligomers and the model is constructed to enable a very simple back-mapping procedure to reconstruct geometries with atomistic resolution. The model is illustrated for three related polymers containing DPP (diketopyrrolopyrrole) to evaluate the transferability of the potential across different families of polymers. The accuracy of the model, determined by comparison with the results of fully equilibrated simulations of the same material before and after back-mapping, is fully satisfactory for two out of the three cases considered. We noticed that accuracy can be determined very early in the workflow so that it is easy to assess when the deployment of this method is advantageous. The hybrid representation can be used to evaluate directly the electronic properties of structures sampled by the simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Reisjalali
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool Crown St L69 7ZD Liverpool UK
| | - Rex Manurung
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool Crown St L69 7ZD Liverpool UK
| | - Paola Carbone
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science Oxford Road M13 9PL Manchester UK
| | - Alessandro Troisi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool Crown St L69 7ZD Liverpool UK
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9
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Friday DM, Jackson NE. Modeling the Interplay of Conformational and Electronic Structure in Conjugated Polyelectrolytes. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David M. Friday
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 505 S Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Nicholas E. Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 505 S Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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10
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Temperature-Dependent Conformation Behavior of Isolated Poly(3-hexylthiopene) Chains. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14030550. [PMID: 35160539 PMCID: PMC8840214 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We use atomistic as well as coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to study the conformation of a single poly(3-hexylthiopene) chain as a function of temperature. We find that mainly bundle and toroid structures appear with bundles becoming more abundant for decreasing temperatures. We compare an atomistic and a Martini-based coarse-grained model which we find in very good agreement. We further illustrate how the temperature dependence of P3HT can be connected to that of simple Lennard–Jones model polymers in a vacuum. Upon adding solvent (THF) we observe the occurrence of a prominent swelling of the molecular size at a temperature of about 220 K. This swelling is in close agreement with the interpretation of recent spectroscopic experiments which allows us to explain the experimental observations by an increased frequency of bundle structures.
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11
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Wolf CM, Guio L, Scheiwiller S, Pakhnyuk V, Luscombe C, Pozzo LD. Strategies for the Development of Conjugated Polymer Molecular Dynamics Force Fields Validated with Neutron and X-ray Scattering. ACS POLYMERS AU 2021; 1:134-152. [PMID: 36855657 PMCID: PMC9954299 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.1c00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Conjugated polymers (CPs) enable a wide range of lightweight, lower cost, and flexible organic electronic devices, but a thorough understanding of relationships between molecular structure and dynamics and electronic performance is critical for improved device efficiencies and for new technologies. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations offer in silico insight into this relationship, but their accuracy relies on the approach used to develop the model's parameters or force field (FF). In this Perspective, we first review current FFs for CPs and find that most of the models implement an arduous reparameterization of inter-ring torsion potentials and partial charges of classical FFs. However, there are few FFs outside of simple CP molecules, e.g., polythiophenes, that have been developed over the last two decades. There is also limited reparameterization of other parameters, such as nonbonded Lennard-Jones interactions, which we find to be directly influenced by conjugation in these materials. We further provide a discussion on experimental validation of MD FFs, with emphasis on neutron and X-ray scattering. We define multiple ways in which various scattering methods can be directly compared to results of MD simulations, providing a powerful experimental validation metric of local structure and dynamics at relevant length and time scales to charge transport mechanisms in CPs. Finally, we offer a perspective on the use of neutron scattering with machine learning to enable high-throughput parametrization of accurate and experimentally validated CP FFs enabled not only by the ongoing advancements in computational chemistry, data science, and high-performance computing but also using oligomers as proxies for longer polymer chains during FF development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn M. Wolf
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Box 351750, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, United States,Center
for Neutron Research, Stop 6102, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20889-6102, United States,
| | - Lorenzo Guio
- Department
of Material Science and Engineering, University
of Washington, Box 352120, Seattle, Washington 98195-2120, United States
| | - Sage Scheiwiller
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Box 351750, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, United States
| | - Viktoria Pakhnyuk
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Christine Luscombe
- Department
of Material Science and Engineering, University
of Washington, Box 352120, Seattle, Washington 98195-2120, United States,Department
of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Lilo D. Pozzo
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Box 351750, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, United States,
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12
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Cao Z, Leng M, Cao Y, Gu X, Fang L. How rigid are conjugated non‐ladder and ladder polymers? JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Cao
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering The University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg Mississippi USA
| | - Mingwan Leng
- Department of Chemistry Texas A&M University College Station Texas USA
| | - Yirui Cao
- Department of Chemistry Texas A&M University College Station Texas USA
| | - Xiaodan Gu
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering The University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg Mississippi USA
| | - Lei Fang
- Department of Chemistry Texas A&M University College Station Texas USA
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13
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Kiymaz D, Kiymaz A, Zafer C. Performance improvement of P3HT nanowire-based organic solar cells by interfacial morphology engineering. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:105401. [PMID: 33203816 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abcb61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Poly (3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) nanowires (nw-P3HT) have been a great interest for organic electronics, including organic field-effect transistors, organic photodetectors, organic photovoltaics, etc due to easy formation in the solution process. Thus both explanations of charge transport dynamics and morphology are crucial for device performance. Here we demonstrated the optoelectronic properties of the P3HT nanowires where the polymer backbones were parallel to the nanowire axis. The nanowires tended to form a bundle due to van der Waals interactions. Nanowire bundles were separated by 1,8-diiodooctane (DIO) additive for photovoltaic fabrication. The bundle separation was visualized by atomic force microscopy. The charge transfer mechanism was evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electrical analysis showed that short-circuit current density (J sc) increases to 10.74 mA cm-2 after the bundle separation. According to impedance analysis, there is a correlation between effective lifetime and DIO ratio. These findings were considered as promising results for improving the transport by forming pathways for charge carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Kiymaz
- Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Aykut Kiymaz
- Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, 35040, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ceylan Zafer
- Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
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14
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Yoshimoto Y, Sugiyama S, Shimada S, Kaneko T, Takagi S, Kinefuchi I. Molecular Insights into the Mechanical Properties of Polymer–Fullerene Bulk Heterojunctions for Organic Photovoltaic Applications. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Yoshimoto
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Sou Sugiyama
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Shuntaro Shimada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Kaneko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Shu Takagi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Ikuya Kinefuchi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
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15
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Tsourtou FD, Peristeras LD, Apostolov R, Mavrantzas VG. Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Amorphous Poly(3-hexylthiophene). Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Flora D. Tsourtou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras & FORTH-ICE/HT, GR 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Loukas D. Peristeras
- Molecular Thermodynamics and Modelling of Materials Laboratory, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, GR-15310 Agia Paraskevi
Attikis, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Vlasis G. Mavrantzas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras & FORTH-ICE/HT, GR 26504 Patras, Greece
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Particle Technology Laboratory, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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16
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Predicting optical spectra for optoelectronic polymers using coarse-grained models and recurrent neural networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:13945-13948. [PMID: 32513725 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1918696117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coarse-grained modeling of conjugated polymers has become an increasingly popular route to investigate the physics of organic optoelectronic materials. While ultraviolet (UV)-vis spectroscopy remains one of the key experimental methods for the interrogation of these materials, a rigorous bridge between simulated coarse-grained structures and spectroscopy has not been established. Here, we address this challenge by developing a method that can predict spectra of conjugated polymers directly from coarse-grained representations while avoiding repetitive procedures such as ad hoc back-mapping from coarse-grained to atomistic representations followed by spectral computation using quantum chemistry. Our approach is based on a generative deep-learning model: the long-short-term memory recurrent neural network (LSTM-RNN). The latter is suggested by the apparent similarity between natural languages and the mathematical structure of perturbative expansions of, in our case, excited-state energies perturbed by conformational fluctuations. We also use this model to explore the level of sensitivity of spectra to the coarse-grained representation back-mapping protocol. Our approach presents a tool uniquely suited for improving postsimulation analysis protocols, as well as, potentially, for including spectral data as input in the refinement of coarse-grained potentials.
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17
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Organic Photovoltaics: Relating Chemical Structure, Local Morphology, and Electronic Properties. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2020.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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18
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Bombile JH, Shetty S, Janik MJ, Milner ST. Polaron hopping barriers and rates in semiconducting polymers. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:4032-4042. [PMID: 32025674 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp06039a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Conjugated polymers are potential next-generation materials for organic electronic devices. The ability of these materials to transport charges is a key factor limiting their performance. Charge carriers in conjugated polymers are localized by disorder and polaronic effects. Charge transport in these materials is often described by thermally activated hopping, with a rate given by Marcus theory. The polaron hopping activation energy determines the temperature dependence of the Marcus rate. This energy barrier is dictated by the transition state, in which the charge carrier is equally divided between the initial and final locations. The prefactor for the polaron hopping rate is set by the charge tunneling rate between the initial and final locations. We use a tight-binding polaron model, in which charge carriers are stabilized by both nuclear reorganization and polarization of the surrounding dielectric, to compute the activation energy, charge tunneling rate and overall rate constant for intrachain and interchain charge hopping processes in poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) crystalline lamellae and amorphous melts. Charge transport in these two environments is limited by interchain hopping processes. Both hopping barriers and rates predicted by the model are in good agreement with experiments on a variety of crystalline and amorphous P3HT materials. Qualitatively, the barriers largely depend on how well the transition state is stabilized by polarization effects, and on the hopping integral between the initial and final locations, both of which penalize hopping over longer distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel H Bombile
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Shreya Shetty
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Michael J Janik
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Scott T Milner
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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19
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Boehm BJ, Nguyen HTL, Huang DM. The interplay of interfaces, supramolecular assembly, and electronics in organic semiconductors. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2019; 31:423001. [PMID: 31212263 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ab2ac2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Organic semiconductors, which include a diverse range of carbon-based small molecules and polymers with interesting optoelectronic properties, offer many advantages over conventional inorganic semiconductors such as silicon and are growing in importance in electronic applications. Although these materials are now the basis of a lucrative industry in electronic displays, many promising applications such as photovoltaics remain largely untapped. One major impediment to more rapid development and widespread adoption of organic semiconductor technologies is that device performance is not easily predicted from the chemical structure of the constituent molecules. Fundamentally, this is because organic semiconductor molecules, unlike inorganic materials, interact by weak non-covalent forces, resulting in significant structural disorder that can strongly impact electronic properties. Nevertheless, directional forces between generally anisotropic organic-semiconductor molecules, combined with translational symmetry breaking at interfaces, can be exploited to control supramolecular order and consequent electronic properties in these materials. This review surveys recent advances in understanding of supramolecular assembly at organic-semiconductor interfaces and its impact on device properties in a number of applications, including transistors, light-emitting diodes, and photovoltaics. Recent progress and challenges in computer simulations of supramolecular assembly and orientational anisotropy at these interfaces is also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda J Boehm
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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20
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Kim HJ, Kim JS, Kim Y, Jung YS, Kim BJ, Kim Y. Regioregularity controlled phase behavior for Poly(3-hexylthiophene): A combined study of simple coarse-grained simulation and experiment. POLYMER 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2019.121569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Lee EMY, Willard AP. Solving the Trivial Crossing Problem While Preserving the Nodal Symmetry of the Wave Function. J Chem Theory Comput 2019; 15:4332-4343. [PMID: 31305997 PMCID: PMC6750758 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.9b00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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In
an adiabatic mixed quantum-classical simulation, the avoided
crossing of weakly coupled eigenstates can lead to unphysical discontinuities
in wave function dynamics, otherwise known as the trivial crossing
problem. A standard solution to the trivial crossing problem eliminates
spatial discontinuities in wave function dynamics by imposing changes
to the eigenstate of the wave function. In this paper, we show that
this solution has the side effect of introducing transient discontinuities
in the nodal symmetry of the wave function. We present an alternative
solution to the trivial crossing problem that preserves both the spatial
and nodal structure of the adiabatic wave function. By considering
a model of exciton dynamics on conjugated polymer systems, we show
that failure to preserve wave function symmetry yields exciton dynamics
that depends unphysically on polymer system size. We demonstrate that
our symmetry-preserving solution to the trivial crossing problem yields
more realistic dynamics and can thus improve the accuracy of simulations
of larger systems that are prone to the trivial crossing problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Y Lee
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering , The University of Chicago , Chicago , Illinois 60637 , United States
| | - Adam P Willard
- Department of Chemistry , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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22
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Kumar S, Wu L, Sharma N, Ayushee, Kaushik K, Grishina M, Chhikara BS, Poonam, Potemkin V, Rathi B. Theoretical and experimental studies of an oseltamivir-triazole-based thermoresponsive organogel. RSC Adv 2019; 9:21031-21041. [PMID: 35515532 PMCID: PMC9065751 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra02463h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Low-molecular weight organic gelators have been of significant interest in recent years because of their interesting properties and potential applications in sensing technology, biomedicine and drug delivery. Herein, the synthesis, characterization and gelation properties of new oseltamivir conjugates are reported. The oseltamivir-triazole conjugate 1 was synthesized via a click-reaction in a 75% yield. The key features of this conjugate include the presence of amide, flexible ester linkages and a triazole scaffold linking a hydrophobic alkyl chain. The conjugate 1, possessing a long alkyl chain, showed gelation properties in various apolar organic solvents. This gelation behavior was not observed in the case of the deesterified conjugate 2; this indicated the necessity of the alkyl chain for gelation. The gelator 1 showed thermoreversible gelation properties in a range of linear alkane solvents (from n-pentane to n-dodecane). A scanning electron microscopic study suggests that the gelator 1 exists as cross-linked structures, which are self-aggregated in the range of submicrometers, as supported by extensive 1H-NMR studies. The rheological parameters supported the occurrence of a soft gelation process, and the gel formed in n-decane was found to be stiffer than that formed in n-hexane. Computational studies suggested that the gelation behavior was indeed due to micelle formation and dependent on the lipophilicity of solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit Kumar
- Laboratory for Translational Chemistry and Drug Discovery, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College University Enclave, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India .,Department of Chemistry, Miranda House, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India
| | - Lidong Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge Massachusetts 02139 USA.,Key Laboratory of Control of Quality and Safety for Aquatic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences Beijing 100141 China
| | - Neha Sharma
- Laboratory for Translational Chemistry and Drug Discovery, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College University Enclave, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India
| | - Ayushee
- Laboratory for Translational Chemistry and Drug Discovery, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College University Enclave, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India
| | - Kumar Kaushik
- Fire Chemistry Group, Centre for Fire, Explosives & Environment Safety Delhi-110054 India
| | - Maria Grishina
- South Ural State University, Laboratory of Computational Modeling of Drugs 454080 Russia
| | - Bhupendra S Chhikara
- Department of Chemistry, Aditi Mahavidyalaya, University of Delhi Bawana Delhi-110039 India
| | - Poonam
- Department of Chemistry, Miranda House, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India
| | - Vladimir Potemkin
- South Ural State University, Laboratory of Computational Modeling of Drugs 454080 Russia
| | - Brijesh Rathi
- Laboratory for Translational Chemistry and Drug Discovery, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College University Enclave, University of Delhi Delhi 110007 India
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23
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Wolf CM, Kanekal KH, Yimer YY, Tyagi M, Omar-Diallo S, Pakhnyuk V, Luscombe CK, Pfaendtner J, Pozzo LD. Assessment of molecular dynamics simulations for amorphous poly(3-hexylthiophene) using neutron and X-ray scattering experiments. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:5067-5083. [PMID: 31183486 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00807a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The molecular morphology and dynamics of conjugated polymers in the bulk solid state play a significant role in determining macroscopic charge transport properties. To understand this relationship, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and quantum mechanical calculations are used to evaluate local electronic properties. In this work, we investigate the importance of system and simulation parameters, such as force fields and equilibration methods, when simulating amorphous poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), a model semiconducting polymer. An assessment of MD simulations for five different published P3HT force fields is made by comparing results to experimental wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and to a broad range of quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QENS) data. Moreover, an in silico analysis of force field parameters reveals that atomic partial charges and torsion potentials along the backbone and side chains have the greatest impact on structure and dynamics related to charge transport mechanisms in P3HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn M Wolf
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Box 351750, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, USA.
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24
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Zhang W, Bombile JH, Weisen AR, Xie R, Colby RH, Janik MJ, Milner ST, Gomez ED. Thermal Fluctuations Lead to Cumulative Disorder and Enhance Charge Transport in Conjugated Polymers. Macromol Rapid Commun 2019; 40:e1900134. [PMID: 31116905 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201900134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
All conjugated polymers examined to date exhibit significant cumulative lattice disorder, although the origin of this disorder remains unclear. Using atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, the detailed structures for single crystals of a commonly studied conjugated polymer, poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) are obtained. It is shown that thermal fluctuations of thiophene rings lead to cumulative disorder of the lattice with an effective paracrystallinity of about 0.05 in the π-π stacking direction. The thermal-fluctuation-induced lattice disorder can in turn limit the apparent coherence length that can be observed in diffraction experiments. Calculating mobilities from simulated crystal structures demonstrates that thermal-fluctuation-induced lattice disorder even enhances charge transport in P3HT. The mean inter-chain charge transfer integral is enhanced with increasing cumulative lattice disorder, which in turn leads to pathways for fast charge transport through crystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlin Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Joel H Bombile
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Albree R Weisen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Renxuan Xie
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Ralph H Colby
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Michael J Janik
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Scott T Milner
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.,Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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25
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Greco C, Melnyk A, Kremer K, Andrienko D, Daoulas KC. Generic Model for Lamellar Self-Assembly in Conjugated Polymers: Linking Mesoscopic Morphology and Charge Transport in P3HT. Macromolecules 2019; 52:968-981. [PMID: 30792553 PMCID: PMC6376450 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b01863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We develop a generic coarse-grained model of soluble conjugated polymers, capable of describing their self-assembly into a lamellar mesophase. Polymer chains are described by a hindered-rotation model, where interaction centers represent entire repeat units, including side chains. We introduce soft anisotropic nonbonded interactions to mimic the potential of mean force between atomistic repeat units. The functional form of this potential reflects the symmetry of the molecular order in a lamellar mesophase. The model can generate both nematic and lamellar (sanidic smectic) molecular arrangements. We parametrize this model for a soluble conjugated polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and demonstrate that the simulated lamellar mesophase matches morphologies of low molecular weight P3HT, experimentally observed at elevated temperatures. A qualitative charge-transport model allows us to link local chain conformations and mesoscale order to charge transport. In particular, it shows how coarsening of lamellar domains and chain extension increase the charge carrier mobility. By modeling large systems and long chains, we can capture transport between lamellar layers, which is due to rare, but thermodynamically allowed, backbone bridges between neighboring layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Greco
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Anton Melnyk
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Kurt Kremer
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Denis Andrienko
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Kostas Ch. Daoulas
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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26
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27
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Tsourtou FD, Peroukidis SD, Peristeras LD, Mavrantzas VG. Monte Carlo Algorithm Based on Internal Bridging Moves for the Atomistic Simulation of Thiophene Oligomers and Polymers. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b01344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Flora D. Tsourtou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras and FORTH-ICE/HT, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Stavros D. Peroukidis
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras and FORTH-ICE/HT, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
- School of Science/Technology, Natural Sciences, Hellenic Open University, GR-26335 Patras, Greece
| | - Loukas D. Peristeras
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Molecular Thermodynamics and Modelling of Materials Laboratory, National Center for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, GR-15310 Agia Paraskevi Attikis, Greece
| | - Vlasis G. Mavrantzas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras and FORTH-ICE/HT, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
- Particle Technology Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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28
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Alves JCF, Freire JA. Distribution of Conjugation Lengths in an Ensemble of Lattice Polymers. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.201800020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joniel C. F. Alves
- Escola Politécnica; Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná; Curitiba-PR 80215-901 Brazil
| | - José A. Freire
- Departamento de Física; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba-PR 81531-990 Brazil
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29
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Hayward DW, Lunn DJ, Seddon A, Finnegan JR, Gould OEC, Magdysyuk O, Manners I, Whittell GR, Richardson RM. Structure of the Crystalline Core of Fiber-like Polythiophene Block Copolymer Micelles. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b02552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Oxana Magdysyuk
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science & Innovation Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0DE, U.K
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30
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Brownian orientational lath model (BOLD): A computational model relating the self-assembly in a fluid of lath like particles with its rheology and gelation. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191785. [PMID: 29414981 PMCID: PMC5802906 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
By means of a computational model, we study the relation between two complementary views of gelation, rheological tests against the characterization of a network of consecutive particles. The model we propose consists of slender, plane, colloidal sized particles, which we name laths, which self-assemble into long ordered aggregates of several particles; called whiskers in the literature. Within a whisker, the interaction potential is a minimum when: the planes of two consecutive laths are aligned, thus favoring their alignment; when the center of three consecutive laths lie in a straight line, thus favoring stacking; and when the center of two consecutive laths are located at a certain distance, which mimics excluded volume. A threshold value of the potential gives a condition for sticking free laths into whiskers, and for the breaking of whiskers. The simplicity of the model allows the simulation to reach large enough times, of the order of minutes, needed to simulate numerical rheology tests. We are able to characterize the whisker formation, as well as to simulate the gel transition, by means of an oscillatory shear numerical experiment. We conclude that according to the usual rheological definition a gel transition occurs at about 250K, even though there is no branching and less than 10% of whiskers are long enough as to percolate the system.
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31
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Bombile JH, Janik MJ, Milner ST. Polaron formation mechanisms in conjugated polymers. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:317-331. [PMID: 29210368 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp04355d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In semiconducting polymers, interactions with conformational degrees of freedom can localize charge carriers, and strongly affect charge transport. Polarons can form when charges induce deformations of the surrounding medium, including local vibrational modes or dielectric polarization. These deformations then interact attractively with the charge, tending to localize it. First we investigate vibrational polaron formation in poly(3-hexylthiophene) [P3HT], with a tight-binding model for charges hopping between adjacent rings, coupled to ring distortions. We use density functional theory (DFT) calculations to determine coupling constants, including the "spring constant" for ring distortions and the coupling to the charge carrier. On single chains, we find only broad, weakly bound polarons by this mechanism. In 2d crystalline layers of P3HT, even weak transverse hopping between chains destabilizes this polaron. Then, we consider polarons stabilized by dielectric polarization, described semiclassically with a polarizable continuum interacting with the carrier wavefunction. In contrast to vibrational polarons, we find dielectrically stabilized polarons in P3HT are narrower, more strongly bound, and stable in 2d crystalline layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel H Bombile
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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32
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Franco-Gonzalez JF, Pavlopoulou E, Stavrinidou E, Gabrielsson R, Simon DT, Berggren M, Zozoulenko IV. Morphology of a self-doped conducting oligomer for green energy applications. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:13717-13724. [PMID: 28884179 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr04617k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A recently synthesized self-doped conducting oligomer, salt of bis[3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene]3thiophene butyric acid, ETE-S, is a novel promising material for green energy applications. Recently, it has been demonstrated that it can polymerize in vivo, in plant systems, leading to a formation of long-range conducting wires, charge storage and supercapacitive behaviour of living plants. Here we investigate the morphology of ETE-S combining the experimental characterisation using Grazing Incidence Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (GIWAXS) and atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The GIWAXS measurements reveal a formation of small crystallites consisting of π-π stacked oligomers (with the staking distance 3.5 Å) that are further organized in h00 lamellae. These experimental results are confirmed by MD calculations, where we calculated the X-ray diffraction pattern and the radial distribution function for the distance between ETE-S chains. Our MD simulations also demonstrate the formation of the percolative paths for charge carriers that extend throughout the whole structure, despite the fact that the oligomers are short (6-9 rings) and crystallites are thin along the π-π stacking direction, consisting of only two or three π-π stacked oligomers. The existence of the percolative paths explains the previously observed high conductivity in in vivo polymerized ETE-S. We also explored the geometrical conformation of ETE-S oligomers and the bending of their aliphatic chains as a function of the oligomer lengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Felipe Franco-Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden.
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33
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Lukose B, Bobbili SV, Clancy P. Factors affecting tacticity and aggregation of P3HT polymers in P3HT:PCBM blends. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2017.1303688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Binit Lukose
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Sai Vineeth Bobbili
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Paulette Clancy
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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34
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Huang H, Cao F, Wu L, Sun H. All-atom and coarse-grained force fields for polydimethylsiloxane. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2017.1328597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Huang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenglei Cao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huai Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Scientific and Engineering Computing of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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35
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Jones ML, Jankowski E. Computationally connecting organic photovoltaic performance to atomistic arrangements and bulk morphology. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2017.1296958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L. Jones
- Micron School of Materials Science and Engineering, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
| | - Eric Jankowski
- Micron School of Materials Science and Engineering, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
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36
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Kim JS, Kim Y, Kim HJ, Kim HJ, Yang H, Jung YS, Stein GE, Kim BJ. Regioregularity-Driven Morphological Transition of Poly(3-hexylthiophene)-Based Block Copolymers. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Gila E. Stein
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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37
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Harrelson TF, Moulé AJ, Faller R. Modeling organic electronic materials: bridging length and time scales. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2016.1273526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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38
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Groves C. Simulating charge transport in organic semiconductors and devices: a review. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2017; 80:026502. [PMID: 27991440 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/80/2/026502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Charge transport simulation can be a valuable tool to better understand, optimise and design organic transistors (OTFTs), photovoltaics (OPVs), and light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). This review presents an overview of common charge transport and device models; namely drift-diffusion, master equation, mesoscale kinetic Monte Carlo and quantum chemical Monte Carlo, and a discussion of the relative merits of each. This is followed by a review of the application of these models as applied to charge transport in organic semiconductors and devices, highlighting in particular the insights made possible by modelling. The review concludes with an outlook for charge transport modelling in organic electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Groves
- Durham University, School of Engineering and Computing Sciences, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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39
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Ito T, Shimomura T, Miura T. Simulation Study of the Effect of the Side-Chain Structure on the Initial Nucleation Process of Polythiophene Derivatives. J Phys Chem B 2017; 121:1108-1117. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b10848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taiki Ito
- Graduate
School of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Takeshi Shimomura
- Graduate
School of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Miura
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
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40
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da Silva MC, Cassemiro SDM, Machado AM, Alves JCF, Nogueira SL, Jarrosson T, Serein-Spirau F, Akcelrud L, Tozoni JR, Silva RA, Freire JA, Marletta A. Conjugation Length Distribution in Poly(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV) Films. J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:9702-9706. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.6b08649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo C. da Silva
- Center
for Biological and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Acre, Rio Branco, Acre 69920-900, Brazil
| | - Sandra de M. Cassemiro
- Paulo
Scarpa Polymer Laboratory (LaPPS), Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná 80060-000, Brazil
| | - Angelita M. Machado
- Paulo
Scarpa Polymer Laboratory (LaPPS), Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná 80060-000, Brazil
| | - Joniel C. F. Alves
- Departamento
de Física, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná 80060-000, Brazil
| | - Sandra L. Nogueira
- Equipe Architectures
Moléculaires et Matériaux Nanostruturés (AM2N),
Institut Charles Gerhardt, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Thibault Jarrosson
- Equipe Architectures
Moléculaires et Matériaux Nanostruturés (AM2N),
Institut Charles Gerhardt, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Françoise Serein-Spirau
- Equipe Architectures
Moléculaires et Matériaux Nanostruturés (AM2N),
Institut Charles Gerhardt, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Leni Akcelrud
- Paulo
Scarpa Polymer Laboratory (LaPPS), Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná 80060-000, Brazil
| | - José R. Tozoni
- Institute
of Physics, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas
Gerais 38408-100, Brazil
| | - Raigna A. Silva
- Institute
of Physics, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas
Gerais 38408-100, Brazil
| | - José A. Freire
- Departamento
de Física, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná 80060-000, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Marletta
- Institute
of Physics, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas
Gerais 38408-100, Brazil
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41
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Kiymaz D, Yagmurcukardes M, Tomak A, Sahin H, Senger RT, Peeters FM, Zareie HM, Zafer C. Controlled growth mechanism of poly (3-hexylthiophene) nanowires. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:455604. [PMID: 27727143 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/45/455604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Synthesis of 1D-polymer nanowires by a self-assembly method using marginal solvents is an attractive technique. While the formation mechanism is poorly understood, this method is essential in order to control the growth of nanowires. Here we visualized the time-dependent assembly of poly (3-hexyl-thiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) nanowires by atomic force microscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy. The assembly of P3HT nanowires was carried out at room temperature by mixing cyclohexanone (CHN), as a poor solvent, with polymer solution in 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB). Both π-π stacking and planarization, obtained at the mix volume ratio of P3HT (in DCB):CHN (10:7), were considered during the investigation. We find that the length of nanowires was determined by the ordering of polymers in the polymer repetition direction. Additionally, our density functional theory calculations revealed that the presence of DCB and CHN molecules that stabilize the structural distortions due to tail group of polymers was essential for the core-wire formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kiymaz
- Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
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42
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Borzdun NI, Larin SV, Falkovich SG, Nazarychev VM, Volgin IV, Yakimansky AV, Lyulin AV, Negi V, Bobbert PA, Lyulin SV. Molecular dynamics simulation of poly(3-hexylthiophene) helical structureIn Vacuoand in amorphous polymer surrounding. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia I. Borzdun
- Department of Physics; St. Petersburg State University; St. Petersburg 198504 Russia
| | - Sergey V. Larin
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
| | - Stanislav G. Falkovich
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
| | - Victor M. Nazarychev
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
| | - Igor V. Volgin
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
| | - Alexander V. Yakimansky
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
- Saint-Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics, and Optics; St. Petersburg 197101 Russia
| | - Alexey V. Lyulin
- Department of Applied Physics; Technische Universiteit Eindhoven; P.O. Box 513, 5600MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Vikas Negi
- Department of Applied Physics; Technische Universiteit Eindhoven; P.O. Box 513, 5600MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Peter A. Bobbert
- Department of Applied Physics; Technische Universiteit Eindhoven; P.O. Box 513, 5600MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Sergey V. Lyulin
- Department of Physics; St. Petersburg State University; St. Petersburg 198504 Russia
- Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg 199004 Russia
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43
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Bombile JH, Janik MJ, Milner ST. Tight binding model of conformational disorder effects on the optical absorption spectrum of polythiophenes. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:12521-33. [PMID: 27087455 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp00832a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Semiconducting polymers are soft materials with many conformational degrees of freedom. The limited understanding of how conformational disorder affects their optoelectronic properties is a key source of difficulties that limits their widespread usage in electronic devices. We develop a coarse-grained approach based on the tight binding approximation to model the electronic degrees of freedom of polythiophene chains, taking into account conformational degrees of freedom. Particularly important is dihedral disorder, which disrupts extended electronic states. Our tight binding model is parameterized using density functional theory (DFT) calculations of the one-dimensional band structures for chains with imposed periodic variations in dihedral angles. The model predicts valence and conduction bands for these chain conformations that compare well to DFT results. As an initial application of our model, we compute the optical absorption spectrum of poly(3-hexylthiophene) chains in solution. We observe a broadening of the absorption edge resulting from dihedral disorder, just shy of the experimental broadening. We conclude that the effects of molecular disorder on the optoelectronic properties of conjugated polymer single chains can be mostly accounted for by torsional disorder alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel H Bombile
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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44
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Kobryn AE, Gusarov S, Shankar K. The Effect of Molecular Structure and Environment on the Miscibility and Diffusivity in Polythiophene-Methanofullerene Bulk Heterojunctions: Theory and Modeling with the RISM Approach. Polymers (Basel) 2016; 8:polym8040136. [PMID: 30979225 PMCID: PMC6432195 DOI: 10.3390/polym8040136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Although better means to model the properties of bulk heterojunction molecular blends are much needed in the field of organic optoelectronics, only a small subset of methods based on molecular dynamics- and Monte Carlo-based approaches have been hitherto employed to guide or replace empirical characterization and testing. Here, we present the first use of the integral equation theory of molecular liquids in modelling the structural properties of blends of phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) with poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and a carboxylated poly(3-butylthiophene) (P3BT), respectively. For this, we use the Reference Interaction Site Model (RISM) with the Universal Force Field (UFF) to compute the microscopic structure of blends and obtain insight into the miscibility of its components. Input parameters for RISM, such as optimized molecular geometries and charge distribution of interaction sites, are derived by the Density Functional Theory (DFT) methods. We also run Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation to compare the diffusivity of the PCBM in binary blends with P3HT and P3BT, respectively. A remarkably good agreement with available experimental data and results of alternative modelling/simulation is observed for PCBM in the P3HT system. We interpret this as a step in the validation of the use of our approach for organic photovoltaics and support of its results for new systems that do not have reference data for comparison or calibration. In particular, for the less-studied P3BT, our results show that expectations about its performance in binary blends with PCBM may be overestimated, as it does not demonstrate the required level of miscibility and short-range structural organization. In addition, the simulated mobility of PCBM in P3BT is somewhat higher than what is expected for polymer blends and falls into a range typical for fluids. The significance of our predictive multi-scale modelling lies in the insights it offers into nanoscale morphology and charge transport behaviour in multi-component organic semiconductor blends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E Kobryn
- National Institute for Nanotechnology, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada.
| | - Sergey Gusarov
- National Institute for Nanotechnology, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada.
| | - Karthik Shankar
- National Institute for Nanotechnology, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2V4, Canada.
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45
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Root SE, Savagatrup S, Pais CJ, Arya G, Lipomi DJ. Predicting the Mechanical Properties of Organic Semiconductors Using Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel E. Root
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, California 92093-0448, United States
| | - Suchol Savagatrup
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, California 92093-0448, United States
| | - Christopher J. Pais
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, California 92093-0448, United States
| | - Gaurav Arya
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, California 92093-0448, United States
| | - Darren J. Lipomi
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, California 92093-0448, United States
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46
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Marsh HS, Jayaraman A. Effect of side chain length on the morphology of blends of 2,5-bis(3-alkylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene oligomers and fullerene derivatives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.23942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hilary S. Marsh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering; UCB 596, University of Colorado Boulder; Colorado 80309
| | - Arthi Jayaraman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of Delaware; Newark Delaware 19716
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; University of Delaware; Newark Delaware 19716
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47
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Chen CW, Huang CI. Effects of intra/inter-molecular potential parameters, length and grafting density of side-chains on the self-assembling behavior of poly(3′-alkylthiophene)s in the ordered state. POLYMER 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2015.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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48
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Um HA, Lee DH, Heo DU, Yang DS, Shin J, Baik H, Cho MJ, Choi DH. High aspect ratio conjugated polymer nanowires for high performance field-effect transistors and phototransistors. ACS NANO 2015; 9:5264-74. [PMID: 25961419 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b01982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We synthesized a highly crystalline DPP-based polymer, DPPBTSPE, which contained 1,2-bis(5-(thiophen-2-yl)selenophen-2-yl)ethene as a planar and rigid electron donating group. High- and low-molecular weight (MW) DPPBTSPE fractions were collected by Soxhlet extraction and were employed to investigate their unique charge transport properties in macroscopic films and single crystalline polymer nanowire (SC-PNW), respectively. The low-MW polymer could provide well-isolated and high aspect ratio SC-PNWs, in which the direction of π-π stacking was perpendicular to the wire growing axis. The field effect transistors made of SC-PNWs exhibited remarkably high carrier mobility of 24 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1). In addition, phototransistors (PTs) made of SC-PNW showed very high performance in terms of photoresponsivity (R) and photoswitching ratio (P). The average R of the SC PNW-based PTs were in the range of 160-170 A W(-1) and the maximum R was measured at 1920 A W(-1), which is almost three orders higher than that of thin film-based PT device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Ah Um
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hee Lee
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Uk Heo
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Da Seul Yang
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jicheol Shin
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hionsuck Baik
- ‡Division of Analytical Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, 74 Inchon-ro, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-713, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Ju Cho
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Choi
- †Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Korea University 5 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
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49
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Tummala NR, Bruner C, Risko C, Brédas JL, Dauskardt RH. Molecular-Scale Understanding of Cohesion and Fracture in P3HT:Fullerene Blends. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:9957-64. [PMID: 25895745 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b02202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying cohesion and understanding fracture phenomena in thin-film electronic devices are necessary for improved materials design and processing criteria. For organic photovoltaics (OPVs), the cohesion of the photoactive layer portends its mechanical flexibility, reliability, and lifetime. Here, the molecular mechanism for the initiation of cohesive failure in bulk heterojunction (BHJ) OPV active layers derived from the semiconducting polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) [P3HT] and two monosubstituted fullerenes is examined experimentally and through molecular-dynamics simulations. The results detail how, under identical conditions, cohesion significantly changes due to minor variations in the fullerene adduct functionality, an important materials consideration that needs to be taken into account across fields where soluble fullerene derivatives are used.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher Bruner
- ‡Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94305-4034, United States
| | | | | | - Reinhold H Dauskardt
- ‡Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94305-4034, United States
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50
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Laquai F, Andrienko D, Mauer R, Blom PWM. Charge Carrier Transport and Photogeneration in P3HT:PCBM Photovoltaic Blends. Macromol Rapid Commun 2015; 36:1001-25. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201500047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Laquai
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 D-55122 Mainz Germany
| | - Denis Andrienko
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 D-55122 Mainz Germany
| | - Ralf Mauer
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 D-55122 Mainz Germany
| | - Paul W. M. Blom
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 D-55122 Mainz Germany
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