Release of Highly Active Ice Nucleating Biological Particles Associated with Rain

Biological particles may play an important role in the climate system by efficiently acting as ice nucleating particles (INPs) at a higher temperature range (e.g., above −20 °C where representative INPs such as mineral dust remain inactive), but there is an obvious lack of direct evidence that these particles serve in this manner. Here, we collected ambient particles under different weather conditions for identifying INPs that are active above −22 °C. The abundance of such efficient INPs increased during or following rainfall events. The extensive characterization of individual particles by three different analyses (particle morphology and composition, heat sensitivity of ice nucleation activities, and biological fingerprinting by DNA staining) revealed that efficient INPs have distinctly biological characteristics, which differ significantly from more abundant, representative, and relatively less active INPs, such as mineral dust. Additionally, by combining the heat-sensitivity experiments and DNA staining techniques, efficient INPs were found to contain heat-sensitive biomaterials and biological cells. Our findings provide direct evidence that biological particles are preferentially released into the atmosphere during rainfall events and act as important atmospheric INPs at higher temperature ranges (warmer than −22 °C), where typical INPs remain inactive.

Multi-Modal Compositional Analysis of Layered Paint Chips of Automobiles by the Combined Application of ATR-FTIR Imaging, Raman Microspectrometry, and SEM/EDX

For the forensic analysis of multi-layered paint chips of hit-and-run cars, detailed compositional analysis, including minor/trace chemical components in the multi-layered paint chips, is crucial for the potential credentials of the run-away car as the number of layers, painting process, and used paints are quite specific to the types of cars, color of cars, and their surface protection depending on the car manufacturer and the year of manufacture, and yet overall characteristics of some paints used by car manufacturers might be quite similar. In the present study, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) imaging, Raman microspectrometry (RMS), and scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometric (SEM/EDX) techniques were performed in combination for the detailed characterization of three car paint chip samples, which provided complementary and comprehensive information on the multi-layered paint chips. That is, optical microscopy, SEM, and ATR-FTIR imaging techniques provided information on the number of layers, physical heterogeneity of the layers, and layer thicknesses; EDX on the elemental chemical profiles and compositions; ATR-FTIR imaging on the molecular species of polymer resins, such as alkyd, alkyd-melamine, acrylic, epoxy, and butadiene resins, and some inorganics; and RMS on the molecular species of inorganic pigments (TiO₂, ZnO, Fe₃O₄), mineral fillers (kaolinite, talc, pyrophyllite), and inorganic fillers (BaSO₄, Al₂(SO₄)₃, Zn₃(PO₄)₂, CaCO₃). This study demonstrates that the new multi-modal approach has powerful potential to elucidate chemical and physical characteristics of multi-layered car paint chips, which could be useful for determining the potential credentials of run-away cars.

Extending surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) of atmospheric aerosol particles to the accumulation mode (150-800 nm)

Due to their small size, measurements of the complex composition of atmospheric aerosol particles and their surfaces are analytically challenging. This is particularly true for microspectroscopic methods, where it can be difficult to optically identify individual particles smaller than the diffraction limit of visible light (∼350 nm) and measure their vibrational modes. Recently, surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has been applied to the study of aerosol particles, allowing for detection and characterization of previously undistinguishable vibrational modes. However, atmospheric particles analyzed via SERS have primarily been >1 μm to date, much larger than the diameter of the most abundant atmospheric aerosols (∼100 nm). To push SERS towards more relevant particle sizes, a simplified approach involving Ag foil substrates was developed. Both ambient particles and several laboratory-generated model aerosol systems (polystyrene latex spheres (PSLs), ammonium sulfate, and sodium nitrate) were investigated to determine SERS enhancements. SERS spectra of monodisperse, model aerosols between 400-800 nm were compared with non-SERS enhanced spectra, yielding average enhancement factors of 102 for both inorganic and organic vibrational modes. Additionally, SERS-enabled detection of 150 nm size-selected ambient particles represent the smallest individual aerosol particles analyzed by Raman microspectroscopy to date, and the first time atmospheric particles have been measured at sizes approaching the atmospheric number size distribution mode. SERS-enabled detection and identification of vibrational modes in smaller, more atmospherically-relevant particles has the potential to improve understanding of aerosol composition and surface properties, as well as their impact on heterogeneous and multiphase reactions involving aerosol surfaces.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry: The application in the analysis of atmospheric particulate matter

Currently, considerable attention has been paid to atmospheric particulate matter (PM) investigation due to its importance in human health and global climate change. Surface characterization, single particle analysis and depth profiling of PM is important for a better understanding of its formation processes and predicting its impact on the environment and human being. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a surface technique with high surface sensitivity, high spatial resolution chemical imaging and unique depth profiling capabilities. Recent research shows that SIMS has great potential in analyzing both surface and bulk chemical information of PM. In this review, we give a brief introduction of SIMS working principle and survey recent applications of SIMS in PM characterization. Particularly, analyses from different types of PM sources by various SIMS techniques were discussed concerning their advantages and limitations. The future development and needs of SIMS in atmospheric aerosol measurement are proposed with a perspective in broader environmental sciences.

Real-Time Investigation of Chemical Compositions and Hygroscopic Properties of Aerosols Generated from NaCl and Malonic Acid Mixture Solutions Using in Situ Raman Microspectrometry

Recently, ambient sea spray aerosols (SSAs) have been reported to undergo reactions with dicarboxylic acids (DCAs). Several studies have examined the hygroscopic behavior and chemical reactivity of aerosols generated from NaCl-DCA mixture solutions, but the results have varied, especially for the NaCl-malonic acid (NaCl-MA) mixture system. In this work, in situ Raman microspectrometry (RMS) was used to simultaneously monitor the change in chemical composition, size, and phase as a function of the relative humidity, for individual aerosols generated from NaCl-MA solutions, during two hygroscopic measurement cycles, which were performed first through the dehydration process, followed by a humidification process, in each cycle. In situ RMS analysis for the aerosols showed that the chemical reaction between NaCl and MA occurred rapidly in the time scale of 1 h and considerably in the aqueous phase, mostly during the first dehydration process, and the chemical reaction occurs more rapidly when MA is more enriched in the aerosols. For example, the reaction between NaCl and MA for aerosols generated from solutions of NaCl:MA = 2:1 and 1:2 occurred by 81% and 100% at RH = 42% and 45%, respectively, during the first dehydration process. The aerosols generated from the solution of NaCl:MA = 2:1 revealed single efflorescence and deliquescence transitions repeatedly during two hygroscopic cycles. The aerosols from NaCl:MA = 1:1 and 1:2 solutions showed just an efflorescence transition during the first dehydration process and no efflorescence and deliquescence transition during the hygroscopic cycles, respectively. The observed different hygroscopic behavior was due to the different contents of NaCl, MA, and monosodium malonate in the aerosols, which were monitored real-time by in situ RMS.

Progress in the Analysis of Complex Atmospheric Particles

This article presents an overview of recent advances in field and laboratory studies of atmospheric particles formed in processes of environmental air-surface interactions. The overarching goal of these studies is to advance predictive understanding of atmospheric particle composition, particle chemistry during aging, and their environmental impacts. The diversity between chemical constituents and lateral heterogeneity within individual particles adds to the chemical complexity of particles and their surfaces. Once emitted, particles undergo transformation via atmospheric aging processes that further modify their complex composition. We highlight a range of modern analytical approaches that enable multimodal chemical characterization of particles with both molecular and lateral specificity. When combined, these approaches provide a comprehensive arsenal of tools for understanding the nature of particles at air-surface interactions and their reactivity and transformations with atmospheric aging. We discuss applications of these novel approaches in recent studies and highlight additional research areas to explore the environmental effects of air-surface interactions.

Substrate-Deposited Sea Spray Aerosol Particles: Influence of Analytical Method, Substrate, and Storage Conditions on Particle Size, Phase, and Morphology

Atmospheric aerosols are often collected on substrates and analyzed weeks or months after the initial collection. We investigated how the selection of substrate and microscopy method influence the measured size, phase, and morphology of sea spray aerosol (SSA) particles and how sample storage conditions affect individual particles using three common microscopy techniques: optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Micro-Raman spectroscopy was used to determine changes in the water content of stored particles. The results show that microscopy techniques operating under ambient conditions provide the most relevant and robust measurement of particle size. Samples stored in a desiccator and at ambient conditions leads to similar sizes and morphologies, while storage that involves freezing and thawing leads to irreversible changes due to phase changes and water condensation. Typically, SSA particles are deposited wet and, if possible, samples used for single-particle analysis should be stored at or near conditions at which they were collected in order to avoid dehydration. However, if samples need to be dry, as is often the case, then this study found that storing SSA particles at ambient laboratory conditions (17-23% RH and 19-21 °C) was effective at preserving them and reducing changes that would alter samples and subsequent data interpretation.