Direct ultrasensitive electrical detection of prostate cancer biomarkers with CMOS-compatible n- and p-type silicon nanowire sensor arrays

Recent progress on field-effect transistor-based biosensors: device perspective

Over the last few decades, field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors have demonstrated great potential across various industries, including medical, food, agriculture, environmental, and military sectors. These biosensors leverage the electrical properties of transistors to detect a wide range of biomolecules, such as proteins, DNA, and antibodies. This article presents a comprehensive review of advancements in the architectures of FET-based biosensors aiming to enhance device performance in terms of sensitivity, detection time, and selectivity. The review encompasses an overview of emerging FET-based biosensors and useful guidelines to reach the best device dimensions, favorable design, and realization of FET-based biosensors. Consequently, it furnishes researchers with a detailed perspective on design considerations and applications for future generations of FET-based biosensors. Finally, this article proposes intriguing avenues for further research on the topology of FET-based biosensors.

A comprehensive review on the biomedical frontiers of nanowire applications

This comprehensive review examines the immense capacity of nanowires, nanostructures characterized by unbounded dimensions, to profoundly transform the field of biomedicine. Nanowires, which are created by combining several materials using techniques such as electrospinning and vapor deposition, possess distinct mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. As a result, they are well-suited for use in nanoscale electronic devices, drug delivery systems, chemical sensors, and other applications. The utilization of techniques such as the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) approach and template-assisted approaches enables the achievement of precision in synthesis. This precision allows for the customization of characteristics, which in turn enables the capability of intracellular sensing and accurate drug administration. Nanowires exhibit potential in biomedical imaging, neural interfacing, and tissue engineering, despite obstacles related to biocompatibility and scalable manufacturing. They possess multifunctional capabilities that have the potential to greatly influence the intersection of nanotechnology and healthcare. Surmounting present obstacles has the potential to unleash the complete capabilities of nanowires, leading to significant improvements in diagnostics, biosensing, regenerative medicine, and next-generation point-of-care medicines.

Ultrasensitive Detection of PSA Using Antibodies in Crowding Polyelectrolyte Multilayers on a Silicon Nanowire Field-Effect Transistor

Immunosensors based on field-effect transistors with nanowire channels (NWFETs) provide fast and real-time detection of a variety of biomarkers without the need for additional labels. The key feature of the developed immunosensor is the coating of silicon NWs with multilayers of polyelectrolytes (polyethylenimine (PEI) and polystyrene sulfonate (PSS)). By causing a macromolecular crowding effect, it ensures the "soft fixation" of the antibodies into the 3-D matrix of the oppositely charged layers. We investigated the interaction of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a biomarker of prostate cancer, and antibodies adsorbed in the PEI and PSS matrix. In order to visualize the formation of immune complexes between polyelectrolyte layers using SEM and AFM techniques, we employed a second clone of antibodies labeled with gold nanoparticles. PSA was able to penetrate the matrix and concentrate close to the surface layer, which is crucial for its detection on the nanowires. Additionally, this provides the optimal orientation of the antibodies' active centers for interacting with the antigen and improves their mobility. NWFETs were fabricated from SOI material using high-resolution e-beam lithography, thin film vacuum deposition, and reactive-ion etching processes. The immunosensor was characterized by a high sensitivity to pH (71 mV/pH) and an ultra-low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.04 fg/mL for PSA. The response of the immunosensor takes less than a minute, and the measurement is carried out in real time. This approach seems promising for further investigation of its applicability for early screening of prostate cancer and POC systems.

Advances in field-effect biosensors towards point-of-use

The future of medical diagnostics calls for portable biosensors at the point of care, aiming to improve healthcare by reducing costs, improving access, and increasing quality-what is called the 'triple aim'. Developing point-of-care sensors that provide high sensitivity, detect multiple analytes, and provide real time measurements can expand access to medical diagnostics for all. Field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors have several advantages, including ultrahigh sensitivity, label-free and amplification-free detection, reduced cost and complexity, portability, and large-scale multiplexing. They can also be integrated into wearable or implantable devices and provide continuous, real-time monitoring of analytesin vivo, enabling early detection of biomarkers for disease diagnosis and management. This review analyzes advances in the sensitivity, parallelization, and reusability of FET biosensors, benchmarks the limit of detection of the state of the art, and discusses the challenges and opportunities of FET biosensors for future healthcare applications.

Nurturing the marriages of urinary liquid biopsies and nano-diagnostics for precision urinalysis of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer remains the second-most common cancer diagnosed in men, despite the increasingly widespread use of serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening. The controversial clinical implications and cost benefits of PSA screening have been highlighted due to its poor specificity, resulting in a high rate of overdiagnosis and underdiagnosis. Thus, the development of novel biomarkers for prostate cancer detection remains an intriguing challenge. Urine is emerging as a source for prostate cancer biomarker discovery. Currently, new urine biomarkers already outperform serum PSA in clinical diagnosis. Meanwhile, the advances in nanotechnology have provided a suite of diagnostic tools to study prostate cancer in more detail, sparking a new era of biomarker discoveries. In this review, we envision that future prostate cancer diagnosis will probably integrate multiplex nano-diagnostic approaches to detect novel urinary biomarkers. However, challenges remain in differentiating indolent from aggressive cancers to better inform treatment decisions, and clinical translation still needs to be overcome.

Luminescent Silicon Nanowires as Novel Sensor for Environmental Air Quality Control

Air quality monitoring is an increasingly debated topic nowadays. The increasing spillage of waste products released into the environment has contributed to the increase in air pollution. Consequently, the production of increasingly performing devices in air monitoring is increasingly in demand. In this scenario, the attention dedicated to workplace safety monitoring has led to the developing and improving of new sensors. Despite technological advancements, sensors based on nanostructured materials are difficult to introduce into the manufacturing flow due to the high costs of the processes and the approaches that are incompatible with the microelectronics industry. The synthesis of a low-cost ultra-thin silicon nanowires (Si NWs)-based sensor is here reported, which allows us the detection of various dangerous gases such as acetone, ethanol, and the ammonia test as a proof of concept in a nitrogen-based mixture. A modified metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE) approach enables to obtain ultra-thin Si NWs by a cost-effective, rapid and industrially compatible process that exhibit an intense light emission at room temperature. All these gases are common substances that we find not only in research or industrial laboratories, but also in our daily life and can pose a serious danger to health, even at small concentrations of a few ppm. The exploitation of the Si NWs optical and electrical properties for the detection of low concentrations of these gases through their photoluminescence and resistance changes will be shown in a nitrogen-based gas mixture. These sensing platforms give fast and reversible responses with both optical and electrical transductions. These high performances and the scalable synthesis of Si NWs could pave the way for market-competitive sensors for ambient air quality monitoring.

SOI-FET Sensors with Dielectrophoretic Concentration of Viruses and Proteins

Quick label-free virus screening and highly sensitive analytical tools/techniques are becoming extremely important in a pandemic. In this study, we developed a biosensing device based on the silicon nanoribbon multichannel and dielectrophoretic controlled sensors functionalized with SARS-CoV-2 spike antibodies for the use as a platform for the detection and studding of properties of viruses and their protein components. Replicatively defective viral particles based on vesicular stomatitis viruses and HIV-1 were used as carrier molecules to deliver the target SARS-CoV-2 spike S-proteins to sensory elements. It was shown that fully CMOS-compatible nanoribbon sensors have the subattomolar sensitivity and dynamic range of 4 orders. Specific interaction between S-proteins and antibodies leads to the accumulation of the negative charge on the sensor surface. Nonspecific interactions of the viral particles lead to the positive charge accumulation. It was shown that dielectrophoretic controlled sensors allow to estimate the effective charge of the single virus at the sensor surface and separate it from the charge associated with the binding of target proteins with the sensor surface.

Nanomedicine for urologic cancers: diagnosis and management

Urologic cancers accounted for more than 2 million new cases and around 0.8 million deaths in 2020. Although surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, as well as castration for prostate cancer, remain the cornerstones for managing urologic neoplasms, they can result in severe adverse effects, poor patient compliance, and unsatisfactory survival rates, thus, it is essential to develop novel options that enable the early detection of these malignancies, together with providing accurate diagnoses, and more efficient treatment strategies. Nanomedicine represents an emerging approach that can deliver formulations or drugs across traditional biological barriers in the body and be directed to specific cell types within target organs via active targeting or passive targeting, thus, showing potential to improve the management of urologic cancers. In this review, we discussed the most recent updates on the application of nanomedicines in the diagnosis and treatment of urologic cancers, with focus on prostate, bladder and kidney tumors. We also presented the anti-tumor molecular mechanisms of newly designed nanomedicine for treating urologic cancers, mainly including image-guided surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, and their synergetic therapy. Current studies have demonstrated the potential advantages of nanomedicine over conventional approaches. However, most developments and new findings in this area have not been validated in clinical trials yet, and therefore, efforts shall be made to translate these research insights into clinical practices for urologic cancers.

Recent advances in nanomaterials for prostate cancer detection and diagnosis

Despite the significant progress in the discovery of biomarkers and the exploitation of technologies for prostate cancer (PCa) detection and diagnosis, the initial screening of these PCa-related biomarkers using current...

Attomolar analyte sensing techniques (AttoSens): a review on a decade of progress on chemical and biosensing nanoplatforms

Detecting the ultra-low abundance of analytes in real-life samples, such as biological fluids, water, soil, and food, requires the design and development of high-performance biosensing modalities. The breakthrough efforts from the scientific community have led to the realization of sensing technologies that measure the analyte's ultra-trace level, with relevant sensitivity, selectivity, response time, and sampling efficiency, referred to as Attomolar Analyte Sensing Techniques (AttoSens) in this review. In an AttoSens platform, 1 aM detection corresponds to the quantification of 60 target analyte molecules in 100 μL of sample volume. Herein, we review the approaches listed for various sensor probe design, and their sensing strategies that paved the way for the detection of attomolar (aM: 10^-18 M) concentration of analytes. A summary of the technological advances made by the diverse AttoSens trends from the past decade is presented.

Nanowire-based sensor electronics for chemical and biological applications

Detection and recognition of chemical and biological species via sensor electronics are important not only for various sensing applications but also for fundamental scientific understanding. In the past two decades, sensor devices using one-dimensional (1D) nanowires have emerged as promising and powerful platforms for electrical detection of chemical species and biologically relevant molecules due to their superior sensing performance, long-term stability, and ultra-low power consumption. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the recent progress and achievements in 1D nanowire synthesis, working principles of nanowire-based sensors, and the applications of nanowire-based sensor electronics in chemical and biological analytes detection and recognition. In addition, some critical issues that hinder the practical applications of 1D nanowire-based sensor electronics, including device reproducibility and selectivity, stability, and power consumption, will be highlighted. Finally, challenges, perspectives, and opportunities for developing advanced and innovative nanowire-based sensor electronics in chemical and biological applications are featured.

Ultrathin Silicon Nanowires for Optical and Electrical Nitrogen Dioxide Detection

The ever-stronger attention paid to enhancing safety in the workplace has led to novel sensor development and improvement. Despite the technological progress, nanostructured sensors are not being commercially transferred due to expensive and non-microelectronic compatible materials and processing approaches. In this paper, the realization of a cost-effective sensor based on ultrathin silicon nanowires (Si NWs) for the detection of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is reported. A modification of the metal-assisted chemical etching method allows light-emitting silicon nanowires to be obtained through a fast, low-cost, and industrially compatible approach. NO2 is a well-known dangerous gas that, even with a small concentration of 3 ppm, represents a serious hazard for human health. We exploit the particular optical and electrical properties of these Si NWs to reveal low NO2 concentrations through their photoluminescence (PL) and resistance variations reaching 2 ppm of NO2. Indeed, these Si NWs offer a fast response and reversibility with both electrical and optical transductions. Despite the macro contacts affecting the electrical transduction, the sensing performances are of high interest for further developments. These promising performances coupled with the scalable Si NW synthesis could unfold opportunities for smaller sized and better performing sensors reaching the market for environmental monitoring.

Biosensing platforms based on silicon nanostructures: A critical review

Biosensors are revolutionizing the health-care systems worldwide, permitting to survey several diseases, even at their early stage, by using different biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, and other biomarkers. However, these sensing approaches are still scarcely diffused outside the specialized medical and research facilities. Silicon is the undiscussed leader of the whole microelectronics industry, and novel sensors based on this material may completely change the health-care scenario. In this review, we will show how novel sensing platforms based on Si nanostructures may have a disruptive impact on applications with a real commercial transfer. A critical study for the main Si-based biosensors is herein presented with a comparison of their advantages and drawbacks. The most appealing sensing devices are discussed, starting from electronic transducers, with Si nanowires field-effect transistor (FET) and porous Si, to their optical alternatives, such as effective optical thickness porous silicon, photonic crystals, luminescent Si quantum dots, and finally luminescent Si NWs. All these sensors are investigated in terms of working principle, sensitivity, and selectivity with a specific focus on the possibility of their industrial transfer, and which ones may be preferred for a medical device.

A new biosensor detection system to overcome the Debye screening effect: dialysis-silicon nanowire field effect transistor

Background: A silicon nanowire field effect transistor biosensor has four advantages in the detection of small biomolecules. It is mark-free, immediately responsive, highly sensitive, and specific. However, because of environments with a high salt concentration, the Debye screening effect has been a major issue in biological detection. Objective: To overcome Debye screening effect, realize the clinical application of silicon nanowire field effect transistor and verify its specificity and sensitivity. Materials and methods: The test solution was desalted by miniature blood dialyzer, and then the tumor markers were detected by silicon nanowire field effect transistor. Results: Tumor markers in serum were detected successfully and their sensitivity and specificity were verified. Conclusion: This method was found to effectively promote the development of semiconductor materials in biological solution detection.

A SERS nano-tag-based magnetic-separation strategy for highly sensitive immunoassay in unprocessed whole blood

Assay technologies capable of detecting biomarker concentrations in unprocessed whole blood samples are fundamental for applications in medical diagnostics. SERS nano-tags integrated magnetic-separation biosensor (MSB) was realized for the first time for immunoassay in whole blood. The reliability and sensitivity of this method rely, in a large extent, on the quality and properties of the SERS nano-tags. The constructed silicacoated Ag SERS nano-tags as labels were used in a rapid and specific MSB immune sensor to detect Matrix Metalloproteinases 9 (MMP-9) in unprocessed blood samples. With fast screening ability and outstanding sensitivity, we anticipate that this method would greatly promote practical application of stroke-based early-stage cancer diagnosis.

CMOS-Compatible Silicon Nanowire Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor: Technology Development toward Commercialization

Owing to their two-dimensional confinements, silicon nanowires display remarkable optical, magnetic, and electronic properties. Of special interest has been the development of advanced biosensing approaches based on the field effect associated with silicon nanowires (SiNWs). Recent advancements in top-down fabrication technologies have paved the way to large scale production of high density and quality arrays of SiNW field effect transistor (FETs), a critical step towards their integration in real-life biosensing applications. A key requirement toward the fulfilment of SiNW FETs' promises in the bioanalytical field is their efficient integration within functional devices. Aiming to provide a comprehensive roadmap for the development of SiNW FET based sensing platforms, we critically review and discuss the key design and fabrication aspects relevant to their development and integration within complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology.

A highly sensitive FET-type aptasensor using flower-like MoS2 nanospheres for real-time detection of arsenic(iii)

Arsenic (As) contamination in drinking water is problematic due to its threat to human health. Highly stable, sensitive and selective sensors are needed for As(iii), which is the most toxic of the various forms of arsenic. Herein, we describe the fabrication of field-effect transistor (FET)-type aptasensors for As(iii) detection that is based on carboxylic polypyrrole (CPPy)-coated flower-like MoS₂ nanospheres (CFMNSs). Arsenic-binding aptamer-conjugated CFMNSs were integrated into a liquid-ion gated FET system, leading to extraordinary performance with a rapid response (on a time scale of less than 1 s). Field-induced current changes occurred through the interaction between the aptamer and As(iii), resulting in sensitive discrimination of As(iii) at unprecedentedly low concentrations (ca. 1 pM). Moreover, the CFMNS-based aptasensor selectively recognized As(iii) among numerous other metal ions and accurately detected As(iii) in a mixed solution. The FET aptasensor could also discriminate target analytes in a real sample derived from river water. This MoS₂-based aptasensor is a promising tool for the detection of As(iii) and could be used in a wide range of practical applications.

Multiplexed detection of lung cancer biomarkers in patients serum with CMOS-compatible silicon nanowire arrays

In this work, a real-time assay for highly sensitive, label-free, multiplexed electrical detection of lung cancer biomarkers was developed by using silicon nanowire field-effect (SiNW-FET) devices. Highly responsive SiNW arrays were fabricated using a CMOS-compatible anisotropic self-stop etching technique with mass reproducibility and low cost character. The SiNW nanosensor was integrated with PDMS microfluidic device, which allows rapid analyte delivery, makes the analysis to be conducted using exceedingly small samples and enables potential multiplexed detection. The nanowire arrays allowed highly selective and sensitive multiplexed detection of microRNA (miRNA)-126 and CEA. Due to high surface-to-volume ratio that the nanowire dimensions confer, the detection floor of single molecule was achieved. The potential utility in identifying clinical samples for early diagnosis of cancer was demonstrated by analyzing biomarkers in clinical related samples. The developed nanosensor with capability for multiplexed real-time monitoring of biomarkers with high sensitivity and selectivity in clinically relevant samples is highly attractive for diagnosis and treatment of cancer and other diseases.

Top-Down Nanofabrication and Characterization of 20 nm Silicon Nanowires for Biosensing Applications

A top-down nanofabrication approach is used to develop silicon nanowires from silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers and involves direct-write electron beam lithography (EBL), inductively coupled plasma-reactive ion etching (ICP-RIE) and a size reduction process. To achieve nanometer scale size, the crucial factors contributing to the EBL and size reduction processes are highlighted. The resulting silicon nanowires, which are 20 nm in width and 30 nm in height (with a triangular shape) and have a straight structure over the length of 400 μm, are fabricated precisely at the designed location on the device. The device is applied in biomolecule detection based on the changes in drain current (Ids), electrical resistance and conductance of the silicon nanowires upon hybridization to complementary target deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In this context, the scaled-down device exhibited superior performances in terms of good specificity and high sensitivity, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 10 fM, enables for efficient label-free, direct and higher-accuracy DNA molecules detection. Thus, this silicon nanowire can be used as an improved transducer and serves as novel biosensor for future biomedical diagnostic applications.

Robust ultrasensitive tunneling-FET biosensor for point-of-care diagnostics

For point-of-care (POC) applications, robust, ultrasensitive, small, rapid, low-power, and low-cost sensors are highly desirable. Here, we present a novel biosensor based on a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible silicon nanowire tunneling field-effect transistor (SiNW-TFET). They were fabricated “top-down” with a low-cost anisotropic self-stop etching technique. Notably, the SiNW-TFET device provided strong anti-interference capacity by applying the inherent ambipolarity via both pH and CYFRA21-1 sensing. This offered a more robust and portable general protocol. The specific label-free detection of CYFRA21-1 down to 0.5 fgml⁻¹ or ~12.5 aM was achieved using a highly responsive SiNW-TFET device with a minimum sub-threshold slope (SS) of 37 mVdec⁻¹. Furthermore, real-time measurements highlighted the ability to use clinically relevant samples such as serum. The developed high performance diagnostic system is expected to provide a generic platform for numerous POC applications.

Size-controllable ultrathin carboxylated polypyrrole nanotube transducer for extremely sensitive 17β-estradiol FET-type biosensors

Size-controllable aptamer conjugated ultrathin carboxylated polypyrrole nanotubes (A-UCPPyNTs) were successfully fabricated as transducers in 17β-estradiol field-effect transistor (FET)-type biosensors which has extremely high sensitivity (∼1 fM) and unique selectivity.

Sensitive detection and glycoprofiling of a prostate specific antigen using impedimetric assays

This study presents a proof-of-concept for the development of an impedimetric biosensor for ultra-sensitive glycoprofiling of prostate specific antigen (PSA). The biosensor exhibits three unique characteristics: (1) analysis of PSA with limit of detection (LOD) down to 4 aM; (2) analysis of the glycan part of PSA with LOD down to 4 aM level and; (3) both assays (i.e., PSA quantification and PSA glycoprofiling) can be performed on the same interface due to label-free analysis.

Simultaneous Detection of α-Fetoprotein and Carcinoembryonic Antigen Based on Si Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors

Primary hepatic carcinoma (PHC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, resulting in death within six to 20 months. The survival rate can be improved by effective treatments when diagnosed at an early stage. The α-fetoprotein (AFP) and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) have been identified as markers that are expressed at higher levels in PHC patients. In this study, we employed silicon nanowire field-effect transistors (SiNW-FETs) with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic channels to simultaneously detect AFP and CEA in desalted human serum. Dual-channel PDMS was first utilized for the selective modification of AFP and CEA antibodies on SiNWs, while single-channel PDMS offers faster and more sensitive detection of AFP and CEA in serum. During the SiNW modification process, 0.1% BSA was utilized to minimize nonspecific protein binding from serum. The linear dynamic ranges for the AFP and CEA detection were measured to be 500 fg/mL to 50 ng/mL and 50 fg/mL to 10 ng/mL, respectively. Our work demonstrates the promising potential of fabricated SiNW-FETs as a direct detection kit for multiple tumor markers in serum; therefore, it provides a chance for early stage diagnose and, hence, more effective treatments for PHC patients.