Hyaluronan-decorated polymer nanoparticles targeting the CD44 receptor for the combined photo/chemo-therapy of cancer

Moving beyond traditional therapies: the role of nanomedicines in lung cancer

Amidst a global rise in lung cancer occurrences, conventional therapies continue to pose substantial side effects and possess notable toxicities while lacking specificity. Counteracting this, the incorporation of nanomedicines can notably enhance drug delivery at tumor sites, extend a drug's half-life and mitigate inadvertent toxic and adverse impacts on healthy tissues, substantially influencing lung cancer's early detection and targeted therapy. Numerous studies signal that while the nano-characteristics of lung cancer nanomedicines play a pivotal role, further interplay with immune, photothermal, and genetic factors exist. This review posits that the progression towards multimodal combination therapies could potentially establish an efficacious platform for multimodal targeted lung cancer treatments. Current nanomedicines split into active and passive targeting. Active therapies focus on a single target, often with unsatisfactory results. Yet, developing combination systems targeting multiple sites could chart new paths in lung cancer therapy. Conversely, low drug delivery rates limit passive therapies. Utilizing the EPR effect to bind specific ligands on nanoparticles to tumor cell receptors might create a new regime combining active-passive targeting, potentially elevating the nanomedicines' concentration at target sites. This review collates recent advancements through the lens of nanomedicine's attributes for lung cancer therapeutics, the novel carrier classifications, targeted therapeutic modalities and their mechanisms, proposing that the emergence of multi-target nanocomposite therapeutics, combined active-passive targeting therapies and multimodal combined treatments will pioneer novel approaches and tools for future lung cancer clinical therapies.

Development and Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of Novel MDM2/MDM4 Heterodimer Peptide Inhibitors to Enhance 5-Fluorouracil Nucleolar Stress in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) often involves wild-type p53 inactivation by MDM2 and MDM4 overexpression, promoting tumor progression and resistance to 5-fluoruracil (5-FU). Disrupting the MDM2/4 heterodimer can proficiently reactivate p53, sensitizing cancer cells to 5-FU. Herein, we developed 16 peptides based on Pep3 (1), the only known peptide acting through this mechanism. The new peptides, notably 3 and 9, showed lower IC50 values than 1. When incorporated into tumor-targeted biodegradable nanoparticles, these exhibited cytotoxicity against three different CRC cell lines. Notably, NPs/9 caused a significant increase in p53 levels associated with a strong increment of its main downstream target p21 inducing apoptosis. Also, the combined treatment of 9 with 5-FU caused the activation of nucleolar stress and a synergic apoptotic effect. Hence, the co-delivery of MDM2/4 heterodimer disruptors with 5-FU through nanoparticles might be a promising strategy to overcome drug resistance in CRC.

The use of nanomaterials in advancing photodynamic therapy (PDT) for deep-seated tumors and synergy with radiotherapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been under development for at least 40 years. Multiple studies have demonstrated significant anti-tumor efficacy with limited toxicity concerns. PDT was expected to become a major new therapeutic option in treating localized cancer. However, despite a shifting focus in oncology to aggressive local therapies, PDT has not to date gained widespread acceptance as a standard-of-care option. A major factor is the technical challenge of treating deep-seated and large tumors, due to the limited penetration and variability of the activating light in tissue. Poor tumor selectivity of PDT sensitizers has been problematic for many applications. Attempts to mitigate these limitations with the use of multiple interstitial fiberoptic catheters to deliver the light, new generations of photosensitizer with longer-wavelength activation, oxygen independence and better tumor specificity, as well as improved dosimetry and treatment planning are starting to show encouraging results. Nanomaterials used either as photosensitizers per se or to improve delivery of molecular photosensitizers is an emerging area of research. PDT can also benefit radiotherapy patients due to its complementary and potentially synergistic mechanisms-of-action, ability to treat radioresistant tumors and upregulation of anti-tumoral immune effects. Furthermore, recent advances may allow ionizing radiation energy, including high-energy X-rays, to replace external light sources, opening a novel therapeutic strategy (radioPDT), which is facilitated by novel nanomaterials. This may provide the best of both worlds by combining the precise targeting and treatment depth/volume capabilities of radiation therapy with the high therapeutic index and biological advantages of PDT, without increasing toxicities. Achieving this, however, will require novel agents, primarily developed with nanomaterials. This is under active investigation by many research groups using different approaches.

A Trojan horse approach for efficient drug delivery in photodynamic therapy: focus on taxanes

Photodynamic therapy is an effective method for the treatment of several types of cancerous and noncancerous diseases. The key to the success of this treatment method is effective drug delivery to the site of action, for instance, a tumor. This ensures not only the high effectiveness of the therapy but also the suppression of side effects. But how to achieve effective targeted delivery? Lately, much attention has been paid to systems based on the so-called Trojan horse model, which is gaining increasing popularity. The principle of this model is that the effective drug is hidden in the internal structure of a nanoparticle, liposome, or nanoemulsion and is released only at the site of action. In this review article, we focus on drugs from the group of mitotic poisons, taxanes, and their use with photosensitizers in combined therapy. Here, we discuss the possibilities of how to improve the paclitaxel and docetaxel bioavailability, as well as their specific targeting for use in combined photo- and chemotherapy. Moreover, we also present the state of the art multifunctional drugs based on cabazitaxel which, owing to a suitable combination with photosensitizers, can be used besides photodynamic therapy and also in photoacoustic imaging or sonodynamic therapy.

Hyaluronic Acid-Based Bioconjugate Systems, Scaffolds, and Their Therapeutic Potential

In recent years, the development of hyaluronic acid or hyaluronan (HA) based scaffolds, medical devices, bioconjugate systems have expanded into a broad range of research and clinical applications. Research findings over the last two decades suggest that the abundance of HA in most mammalian tissues with distinctive biological roles and chemical simplicity for modifications have made it an attractive material with a rapidly growing global market. Besides its use as native forms, HA has received much interest on so-called "HA-bioconjugates" and "modified-HA systems". In this review, the importance of chemical modifications of HA, underlying rationale approaches, and various advancements of bioconjugate derivatives with their potential physicochemical, and pharmacological advantages are summarized. This review also highlights the current and emerging HA-based conjugates of small molecules, macromolecules, crosslinked systems, and surface coating strategies with their biological implications, including their potentials and key challenges discussed in detail.

Efficacy of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles in Photodynamic Therapy: A Therapeutic Approach

Cancer is a complex and diverse disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. It poses a significant global public health challenge and remains a leading cause of death. The rise in cancer cases and deaths is a significant worry, emphasizing the immediate need for increased awareness, prevention, and treatment measures. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a potential treatment for various types of cancer, including skin, lung, bladder, and oesophageal cancer. A key advantage of PDT is its ability to selectively target cancer cells while sparing normal cells. This is achieved by preferentially accumulating photosensitizing agents (PS) in cancer cells and precisely directing light activation to the tumour site. Consequently, PDT reduces the risk of harming surrounding healthy cells, which is a common drawback of conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. The use of medicinal plants for therapeutic purposes has a long history dating back thousands of years and continues to be an integral part of healthcare in many cultures worldwide. Plant extracts and phytochemicals have demonstrated the ability to enhance the effectiveness of PDT by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoting apoptosis (cell death) in cancer cells. This natural approach capitalizes on the eco-friendly nature of plant-based photoactive compounds, offering valuable insights for future research. Nanotechnology has also played a pivotal role in medical advancements, particularly in the development of targeted drug delivery systems. Therefore, this review explores the potential of utilizing photosensitizing phytochemicals derived from medicinal plants as a viable source for PDT in the treatment of cancer. The integration of green photodynamic therapy with plant-based compounds holds promise for novel treatment alternatives for various chronic illnesses. By harnessing the scientific potential of plant-based compounds for PDT, we can pave the way for innovative and sustainable treatment strategies.

Combination of polythyleneimine regulating autophagy prodrug and Mdr1 siRNA for tumor multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) has been restricting the efficacy of chemotherapy, which mainly include pump resistance and non-pump resistance. In order to fight overall MDR, a novel targeted gene/drug co-deliver nano system is developed, which can suppress the drug efflux pumps and modulate autophagy to overcoming both pump and non-pump resistance. Here, small interfere RNA (siRNA) is incorporated into polymer-drug conjugates (PEI-PTX, PP) which are composed of polyethyleneimine (PEI) and paclitaxel (PTX) via covalent bonds, and hyaluronic acid (HA) is coated on the surface of PP/siRNA to achieve long blood cycle and CD44-targeted delivery. The RNA interference to mdr1 gene is combined with autophagy inhibition by PP, which efficiently facilitate apoptosis of Taxol-resistant lung cancer cells (A549/T). Further study indicates that PEI in PP may play a significant role to block the autophagosome–lysosome fusion process by means of alkalizing lysosomes. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirm that the nanoassemblies can successfully deliver PTX and siRNA into tumor cells and significantly inhibited A549/T tumor growth. In summary, the polymeric nanoassemblies provide a potential strategy for combating both pump and non-pump resistance via the synergism of RNAi and autophagy modulation.

Overview of Nanoparticle-Based Approaches for the Combination of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) and Chemotherapy at the Preclinical Stage

Simple Summary

The present review represents the outstanding and promising recent literature reports (2017–2022) on nanoparticle-based formulations developed for anticancer therapy with photodynamic therapy (PDT), photosensitizers, and chemotherapeutics. Besides brief descriptions of chemotherapeutics’ classification and of PDT mechanisms and limitations, several examples of nanosystems endowed with different responsiveness (e.g., acidic pH and reactive oxygen species) and peculiarity (e.g., tumor oxygenation capacity, active tumor targeting, and biomimetic features) are described, and for each drug combination, in vitro and in vivo results on preclinical cancer models are reported.

Abstract

The widespread diffusion of photodynamic therapy (PDT) as a clinical treatment for solid tumors is mainly limited by the patient’s adverse reaction (skin photosensivity), insufficient light penetration in deeply seated neoplastic lesions, unfavorable photosensitizers (PSs) biodistribution, and photokilling efficiency due to PS aggregation in biological environments. Despite this, recent preclinical studies reported on successful combinatorial regimes of PSs with chemotherapeutics obtained through the drugs encapsulation in multifunctional nanometric delivery systems. The aim of the present review deals with the punctual description of several nanosystems designed not only with the objective of co-transporting a PS and a chemodrug for combination therapy, but also with the goal of improving the therapeutic efficacy by facing the main critical issues of both therapies (side effects, scarce tumor oxygenation and light penetration, premature drug clearance, unspecific biodistribution, etc.). Therefore, particular attention is paid to the description of bio-responsive drugs and nanoparticles (NPs), targeted nanosystems, biomimetic approaches, and upconverting NPs, including analyzing the therapeutic efficacy of the proposed photo-chemotherapeutic regimens in in vitro and in vivo cancer models.

Exploiting the layer-by-layer nanoarchitectonics for the fabrication of polymer capsules: A toolbox to provide multifunctional properties to target complex pathologies

Polymer capsules fabricated via the layer-by-layer (LbL) approach have attracted a great deal of attention for biomedical applications thanks to their tunable architecture. Compared to alternative methods, in which the precise control over the final properties of the systems is usually limited, the intrinsic versatility of the LbL approach allows the functionalization of all the constituents of the polymeric capsules following relatively simple protocols. In fact, the final properties of the capsules can be adjusted from the inner cavity to the outer layer through the polymeric shell, resulting in therapeutic, diagnostic, or theranostic (i.e., combination of therapeutic and diagnostic) agents that can be adapted to the particular characteristics of the patient and face the challenges encountered in complex pathologies. The biomedical industry demands novel biomaterials capable of targeting several mechanisms and/or cellular pathways simultaneously while being tracked by minimally invasive techniques, thus highlighting the need to shift from monofunctional to multifunctional polymer capsules. In the present review, those strategies that permit the advanced functionalization of polymer capsules are accordingly introduced. Each of the constituents of the capsule (i.e., cavity, multilayer membrane and outer layer) is thoroughly analyzed and a final overview of the combination of all the strategies toward the fabrication of multifunctional capsules is presented. Special emphasis is given to the potential biomedical applications of these multifunctional capsules, including particular examples of the performed in vitro and in vivo validation studies. Finally, the challenges in the fabrication process and the future perspective for their safe translation into the clinic are summarized.

Hyaluronan as "Agent Smith" in cancer extracellular matrix pathobiology: Regulatory roles in immune response, cancer progression and targeting

Extracellular matrix (ECM) critically regulates cancer cell behavior by governing cell signaling and properties. Hyaluronan (HA) acts as a structural and functional ECM component that mediates critical properties of cancer cells in a molecular size-dependent manner. HA fragments secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) reveal the correlation of HA to CAF-mediated matrix remodeling, a key step for the initiation of metastasis. The main goal of this article is to highlight the vital functions of HA in cancer cell initiation and progression as well as HA-mediated paracrine interactions among cancer and stromal cells. Furthermore, the HA implication in mediating immune responses to cancer progression is also discussed. Novel data on the role of HA in the formation of pre-metastatic niche may contribute towards the improvement of current theranostic approaches that benefit cancer management.

Developing Actively Targeted Nanoparticles to Fight Cancer: Focus on Italian Research

Active targeting is a valuable and promising approach with which to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of nanodelivery systems, and the development of tumor-targeted nanoparticles has therefore attracted much research attention. In this field, the research carried out in Italian Pharmaceutical Technology academic groups has been focused on the development of actively targeted nanosystems using a multidisciplinary approach. To highlight these efforts, this review reports a thorough description of the last 10 years of Italian research results on the development of actively targeted nanoparticles to direct drugs towards different receptors that are overexpressed on cancer cells or in the tumor microenvironment. In particular, the review discusses polymeric nanocarriers, liposomes, lipoplexes, niosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, squalene nanoassemblies and nanobubbles. For each nanocarrier, the main ligands, conjugation strategies and target receptors are described. The literature indicates that polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes stand out as key tools for improving specific drug delivery to the site of action. In addition, solid lipid nanoparticles, squalene nanoparticles and nanobubbles have also been successfully proposed. Taken together, these strategies all offer many platforms for the design of nanocarriers that are suitable for future clinical translation.

The Labeling, Visualization, and Quantification of Hyaluronan Distribution in Tumor-Bearing Mouse Using PET and MR Imaging

PURPOSE

Hyaluronan (HA) based biomaterials are widely used as tissue scaffolds, drug formulations, as well as targeting ligands and imaging probes for diagnosis and drug delivery. However, because of the presence of abundant endogenous HA presented in various tissues in vivo, the pharmacokinetic behavior and biodistribution patterns of exogenously administered HAs have not been well characterized.

METHODS

The HA backbone was modified with Diethylenetriamine (DTPA) to enable the chelation of gadolinium (Gd) and aluminum (Al) ions. Series of PET and MR imaging were taken after the injection of HA-DTPA-Gd and HA-DTPA-Al¹⁸F while using¹⁸F-FDG and Magnevist(DTPA-Gd) as controls. The Tomographic images were analyzed and quantified to reveal the distribution and locations of HA in tumor-bearing mice.

RESULTS

The labeled HAs had good stability in plasma. They retained binding affinity towards CD44s on tumor cell surface. The injected HAs distributed widely in various organs, but were found to be cleared quickly except inside tumor tissues where the signals were higher and persisted longer.

CONCLUSION

Medical imaging tools, including MR and PET, can be highly valuable for examining biomaterial distribution non-invasively. The HA tumor accumulation properties may be explored for the development of active targeting drug carriers and molecular probes.

Effective atherosclerotic plaque inflammation inhibition with targeted drug delivery by hyaluronan conjugated atorvastatin nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis is associated with inflammation in the arteries, which is a major cause of heart attacks and strokes. Reducing the extent of local inflammation at atherosclerotic plaques can be an attractive strategy to combat atherosclerosis. While statins can exhibit direct anti-inflammatory activities, the high dose required for such a therapy renders it unrealistic due to their low systemic bioavailabilities and potential side effects. To overcome this, a new hyaluronan (HA)-atorvastatin (ATV) conjugate was designed with the hydrophobic statin ATV forming the core of the nanoparticle (HA-ATV-NP). The HA on the NPs can selectively bind with CD44, a cell surface receptor overexpressed on cells residing in atherosclerotic plaques and known to play important roles in plaque development. HA-ATV-NPs exhibited significantly higher anti-inflammatory effects on macrophages compared to ATV alone in vitro. Furthermore, when administered in an apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-knockout mouse model of atherosclerosis following a 1-week treatment regimen, HA-ATV-NPs markedly decreased inflammation in advanced atherosclerotic plaques, which were monitored through contrast agent aided magnetic resonance imaging. These results suggest CD44 targeting with HA-ATV-NPs is an attractive strategy to reduce harmful inflammation in atherosclerotic plaques.

Synergy between Photodynamic Therapy and Dactinomycin Chemotherapy in 2D and 3D Ovarian Cancer Cell Cultures

In this study we explored the efficacy of combining low dose photodynamic therapy using a porphyrin photosensitiser and dactinomycin, a commonly used chemotherapeutic agent. The studies were carried out on compressed collagen 3D constructs of two human ovarian cancer cell lines (SKOV3 and HEY) versus their monolayer counterparts. An amphiphilc photosensitiser was employed, disulfonated tetraphenylporphine, which is not a substrate for ABC efflux transporters that can mediate drug resistance. The combination treatment was shown to be effective in both monolayer and 3D constructs of both cell lines, causing a significant and synergistic reduction in cell viability. Compared to dactinomycin alone or PDT alone, higher cell kill was found using 2D monolayer culture vs. 3D culture for the same doses. In 3D culture, the combination therapy resulted in 10 and 22 times higher cell kill in SKOV3 and HEY cells at the highest light dose compared to dactinomycin monotherapy, and 2.2 and 5.5 times higher cell kill than PDT alone. The combination of low dose PDT and dactinomycin appears to be a promising way to repurpose dactinomycin and widen its therapeutic applications.

CD44 Targeting Mediated by Polymeric Nanoparticles and Combination of Chlorine TPCS2a-PDT and Docetaxel-Chemotherapy for Efficient Killing of Breast Differentiated and Stem Cancer Cells In Vitro

The presence of rare but highly tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) within the tumors is recognized as one of the major reasons of failure of conventional chemotherapies, mainly attributed to the development of drug resistance and increasing metastatic potential. Here, we propose a therapeutic strategy based on the simultaneous delivery of docetaxel (DTX) and the photosensitizer meso-tetraphenyl chlorine disulfonate (TPCS2a) using hyaluronic acid (HA) coated polymeric nanoparticles (HA-NPs) for the targeting and killing of CD44 over-expressing breast cancer (BC) cells, both differentiated and CSCs (CD44high/CD24low population), thus combining chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Using the CD44high MDA-MB-231 and the CD44low MCF-7 cells, we demonstrated the occurrence of CD44-mediated uptake of HA-NPs both in monolayers and mammosphere cultures enriched in CSCs. Cell treatments showed that combination therapy using co-loaded NPs (HA@DTX/TPCS2a-NPs) had superior efficacy over monotherapies (HA@DTX-NPs or HA@TPCS2a-NPs) in reducing the self-renewal capacity, measured as mammosphere formation efficiency, and in eradicating the CSC population evaluated with aldehyde dehydrogenase activity assay and CD44/CD24 immunostaining. In summary, these in vitro studies demonstrated for the first time the potential of the combination of DTX-chemotherapy and TPCS2a-PDT for killing CSCs using properly designed NPs.

Keratin nanoparticles co-delivering Docetaxel and Chlorin e6 promote synergic interaction between chemo- and photo-dynamic therapies

The combination of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is considered a valuable strategy for increasing therapeutic response in cancer treatment, and the re-formulation of pharmaceuticals in biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) is particularly appealing for the possibility of co-loading drugs exerting cytotoxicity by different mechanisms, with the aim to produce synergic effects. We report the in-water synthesis of a novel keratin-based nanoformulation for the co-delivery of the antimitotic Docetaxel (DTX) and the photosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6). The drug-induced aggregation method allowed the formation of monodisperse NPs (DTX/Ce6-KNPs) with an average diameter of 133 nm and loaded with a drug ratio of 1:1.8 of Ce6 vs DTX. The efficacy of DTX/Ce6-KNPs was investigated in vitro in monolayers and spheroids of DTX-sensitive HeLa (HeLa-P) and DTX-resistant HeLa (HeLa-R) cells. In monolayers, the cytotoxic effects of DTX/Ce6-KNPs toward HeLa-P cells were comparable to those induced by free DTX + Ce6, while in HeLa-R cells the drug co-loading in KNPs produced synergic interaction between chemotherapy and PDT. Moreover, as respect to monotherapies, DTX/Ce6-KNPs induced stronger cytotoxicity to both HeLa-P and HeLa-R multicellular spheroids and reduced their volumes up to 50%. Overall, the results suggest that KNPs are very promising systems for the co-delivery of chemotherapeutics and PSs, favoring synergic interactions between PDT and chemotherapy.

Design of Hierarchical Beads for Efficient Label-Free Cell Capture

Defined hierarchical materials promise cell analysis and call for application-driven design in practical use. The further issue is to develop advanced materials and devices for efficient label-free cell capture with minimum instrumentation. Herein, the design of hierarchical beads is reported for efficient label-free cell capture. Silica nanoparticles (size of ≈15 nm) are coated onto silica spheres (size of ≈200 nm) to achieve nanoscale surface roughness, and then the rough silica spheres are combined with microbeads (≈150-1000 µm in diameter) to assemble hierarchical structures. These hierarchical beads are built via electrostatic interaction, covalent bonding, and nanoparticle adherence. Further, after functionalization by hyaluronic acid (HA), the hierarchical beads display desirable surface hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, and chemical/structural stability. Due to the controlled surface topology and chemistry, HA-functionalized hierarchical beads afford high cell capture efficiency up to 98.7% in a facile label-free manner. This work guides the development of label-free cell capture techniques and contributes to the construction of smart interfaces in bio-systems.

Role of cell surface proteoglycans in cancer immunotherapy

Over the past few decades, understanding how tumor cells evade the immune system and their communication with their tumor microenvironment, has been the subject of intense investigation, with the aim of developing new cancer immunotherapies. The current therapies against cancer such as monoclonal antibodies against checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive T-cell transfer, cytokines, vaccines, and oncolytic viruses have managed to improve the clinical outcome of the patients. However, in some tumor entities, the response is limited and could benefit from the identification of novel therapeutic targets. It is known that tumor-extracellular matrix interplay and matrix remodeling are necessary for anti-tumor and pro-tumoral immune responses. Proteoglycans are dominant components of the extracellular matrix and are a highly heterogeneous group of proteins characterized by the covalent attachment of a specific linear carbohydrate chain of the glycosaminoglycan type. At cell surfaces, these molecules modulate the expression and activity of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, adhesion molecules, and function as signaling co-receptors. By these mechanisms, proteoglycans influence the behavior of cancer cells and their microenvironment during the progression of solid tumors and hematopoietic malignancies. In this review, we discuss why cell surface proteoglycans are attractive pharmacological targets in cancer, and we present current and recent developments in cancer immunology and immunotherapy utilizing proteoglycan-targeted strategies.

Folate-Decorated Amphiphilic Cyclodextrins as Cell-Targeted Nanophototherapeutics

Nowadays, active targeting of nanotherapeutics is a challenging issue. Here, we propose a rational design of a ternary nanoassembly (SAP) composed of nonionic amphiphilic β-cyclodextrins (amphiphilic CD) incorporating pheophorbide (Pheo) as a phototherapeutic and an adamantanyl-folic acid conjugate (Ada-FA) to target tumor cells overexpressing α-folate receptor (FR-α(+)). Dynamic light scattering and ζ-potential pointed out the presence of nanoassemblies bearing a negative surface charge (ζ = -51 mV). Morphology of SAP was investigated by atomic force microscopy and microphotoluminescence, indicating the presence of highly emissive near-spherical assemblies of about 280 nm in size. Complementary spectroscopic techniques such as ROESY-NMR, UV/vis and steady-state fluorescence revealed that the folic acid protrudes out of amphiphilic CD rims, prone for recognition with FR-α. Pheo was strongly loaded in the nanoassembly mostly in monomeric form, thus generating singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and consequentely showing phototherapeutic action. SAP remained stable until 2 weeks in aqueous solutions. Stability studies in biologically relevant media pointed out the ability of SAP to interact with serum proteins by means of the oligoethylenglycole fringe, without destabilization. Release experiments demonstrated the sustained release of Pheo from SAP in environments mimiking physiological conditions (∼20% within 1 week), plausibly suggesting low Pheo leaking and high integrity of the assembly within 24 h, time spent on average to reach the target sites. Cellular uptake of SAP was confirmed by confocal microscopy, pointing out that SAP was internalized into the tumoral cells expressing FR-α more efficiently than SP. SAP showed improved phototoxicity in human breast MCF-7 cancer cells FR-α(+) (IC₅₀ = 270 nM) with respect to human prostate carcinoma PC3 cells (IC₅₀ = 700 nM) that express a low level of that receptor (FR-α(-)). Finally, an improved phototoxicity in FR-α(+) MCF-7 cells (IC₅₀ = 270 nM) was assessed after treatment with SAP vs SP (IC₅₀ = 600 nM) which was designed without Ada-FA as a targeting unit.

Emerging Therapeutic Targets in Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy

Background:

Reactive oxygen species sustain tumorigenesis and cancer progression through deregulated redox signalling which also sensitizes cancer cells to therapy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising anti-cancer therapy based on a provoked singlet oxygen burst, exhibiting a better toxicological profile than chemo- and radiotherapy. Important gaps in the knowledge on underlining molecular mechanisms impede on its translation towards clinical applications.

Aims and Methods:

The main objective of this review is to critically analyse the knowledge lately gained on therapeutic targets related to redox and inflammatory networks underlining PDT and its outcome in terms of cell death and resistance to therapy. Emerging therapeutic targets and pharmaceutical tools will be documented based on the identified molecular background of PDT.

Results:

Cellular responses and molecular networks in cancer cells exposed to the PDT-triggered singlet oxygen burst and the associated stresses are analysed using a systems medicine approach, addressing both cell death and repair mechanisms. In the context of immunogenic cell death, therapeutic tools for boosting anti-tumor immunity will be outlined. Finally, the transcription factor NRF2, which is a major coordinator of cytoprotective responses, is presented as a promising pharmacologic target for developing co-therapies designed to increase PDT efficacy.

Conclusion:

There is an urgent need to perform in-depth molecular investigations in the field of PDT and to correlate them with clinical data through a systems medicine approach for highlighting the complex biological signature of PDT. This will definitely guide translation of PDT to clinic and the development of new therapeutic strategies aimed at improving PDT.

Hyaluronan: molecular size-dependent signaling and biological functions in inflammation and cancer

Hyaluronan (HA) is a linear nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan of the extracellular matrix that plays a pivotal role in a variety of biological processes. High-molecular weight HA exhibits different biological properties than oligomers and low-molecular weight HA. Depending on their molecular size, HA fragments can influence cellular behavior in a different mode of action. This phenomenon is attributed to the different manner of interaction with the HA receptors, especially CD44 and RHAMM. Both receptors can trigger signaling cascades that regulate cell functional properties, such as proliferation migration, angiogenesis, and wound healing. HA fragments are able to enhance or attenuate the HA receptor-mediated signaling pathways, as they compete with the endogenous HA for binding to the receptors. The modulation of these pathways could be crucial for the development of pathological conditions, such as inflammation and cancer. The primary goal of this review is to critically present the importance of HA molecular size on cellular signaling, functional cell properties, and morphology in normal and pathological conditions, including inflammation and cancer. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms could contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

The Microfluidic Technique and the Manufacturing of Polysaccharide Nanoparticles

The microfluidic technique has emerged as a promising tool to accelerate the clinical translation of nanoparticles, and its application affects several aspects, such as the production of nanoparticles and the in vitro characterization in the microenvironment, mimicking in vivo conditions. This review covers the general aspects of the microfluidic technique and its application in several fields, such as the synthesis, recovering, and samples analysis of nanoparticles, and in vitro characterization and their in vivo application. Among these, advantages in the production of polymeric nanoparticles in a well-controlled, reproducible, and high-throughput manner have been highlighted, and detailed descriptions of microfluidic devices broadly used for the synthesis of polysaccharide nanoparticles have been provided. These nanoparticulate systems have drawn attention as drug delivery vehicles over many years; nevertheless, their synthesis using the microfluidic technique is still largely unexplored. This review deals with the use of the microfluidic technique for the synthesis of polysaccharide nanoparticles; evaluating features of the most studied polysaccharide drug carriers, such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and alginate polymers. The critical assessment of the most recent research published in literature allows us to assume that microfluidics will play an important role in the discovery and clinical translation of nanoplatforms.

Docetaxel-Loaded Hyaluronic Acid-Cathepsin B-Cleavable-Peptide-Gold Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Cancer

Gold nanoparticles are commonly used for medical applications such as drug delivery and as therapeutic and diagnostic materials because of their unique properties. In this study, we prepared docetaxel (DTX)-loaded hyaluronic acid-cleavable-peptide-gold nanoparticles for the treatment of cancer by selectively delivering DTX into the tumor and, thus, enhancing the therapeutic effect of DTX; further, we determined synergistic effects of the nanoparticles using laser treatment. The DTX-loaded hyaluronic acid-cleavable-peptide-gold nanoparticles prepared in this study had an average size of 75 nm and negative surface charge. The nanoparticles revealed greater cytotoxicity and higher tumor suppression efficacy in tumor models than free DTX under near-infrared laser irradiation. Therefore, the nanoparticle formulation prepared in this study could be utilized for targeted drug delivery and in combination with other cancer therapies.

Co-delivery of Docetaxel and Disulfonate Tetraphenyl Chlorin in One Nanoparticle Produces Strong Synergism between Chemo- and Photodynamic Therapy in Drug-Sensitive and -Resistant Cancer Cells

Cancer therapies based on the combinations of different drugs and/or treatment modalities are emerging as important strategies for increasing efficacy and cure, decreasing unwanted toxicity, and overcoming drug resistance, provided that optimized drug concentration ratios are delivered into the target tissue. To these purposes, delivery systems such as nanoparticles (NPs) offer the unique opportunity to finely tune the drug loading and the release rate of drug combinations in the target tissues. Here, we propose double-layered polymeric NPs for the delivery of the chemotherapeutic docetaxel (DTX) and the photosensitizer disulfonate tetraphenyl chlorin (TPCS2a) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA), which allows cell targeting via CD44 receptors. The simultaneous delivery of the two drugs aims at killing DTX-sensitive (HeLa-P, MDA-MB-231) and DTX-resistant (HeLa-R) cancer cells by combining chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Using the Chou and Talalay method that analyses drug interactions and calculates combination index (CI) using the median-effect principle, we compared the efficiency of DTX chemotherapy combined with TPCS2a-PDT for drugs delivered in the standard solvents, coloaded in the same NP (DTX/TPCS2a-NP) or loaded in separate NPs (DTX-NPs + TPCS2a-NPs). Along with the drug interaction studies, we gained insight into cell death mechanisms after combo-therapy and into the extent of TPCS2a intracellular uptake and localization. In all cell lines considered, the analysis of the viability data revealed synergistic drug/treatment interaction especially when DTX and TPCS2a were delivered to cells coloaded in the same NPs despite the reduced PS uptake measured in the presence of the delivery systems. In fact, while the combinations of the free drugs or drugs in separate NPs gave slight synergism (CI < 1) only at doses killing more than 50% of the cells, the combination of drugs in one NPs gave high synergism also at doses killing 10-20% of the cells. Furthermore, the DTX dose in the combination DTX/TPCS2a-NPs could be reduced by ∼2.6- and 10.7-fold in HeLa-P and MDA-MB-231, respectively. Importantly, drug codelivery in NPs was very efficient in inducing cell mortality also in DTX resistant HeLa-R cells overexpressing P-glycoprotein 1 in which the dose of the chemotherapeutic can be reduced by more than 100 times using DTX/TPCS2a-NPs. Overall, our data demonstrate that the protocol for the preparation of HA-targeted double layer polymeric NPs allows to control the concentration ratio of coloaded drugs and the delivery of the transported drugs for obtaining a highly synergistic interaction combining DTX-chemotherapy and TPCS2a-PDT.

Tailored-BODIPY/Amphiphilic Cyclodextrin Nanoassemblies with PDT Effectiveness

Amphiphilic cyclodextrins (aCDs) are an intriguing class of carrier systems which, recently, have been proposed to deliver porphyrinoids and anticancer drugs or combined dose of both for dual therapeutic applications. The design of nanoassemblies based on aCD and photosensitizers (PSs) aims to preserve the photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficacy of PS, reducing the tendency of PS to self-aggregate, without affecting the quantum yield of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production, and, not less importantly, minimizing dark toxicity and reducing photosensitization effects. With this idea in mind, in this paper, we focus on nanoassemblies between a non-ionic aCD (SC6OH) and halo-alkyl tailored iodinated boron-dipyrromethenes (BODIPY) dye, a class of molecules which recently have been successfully proposed as a stimulating alternative to porphyrinoids for their high photodynamic efficacy. Nanoassemblies of BODIPY/aCD (BL01I@SC6OH) were prepared in different aqueous media by evaporation of mixed organic film of aCD and BODIPY, hydration, and sonication. The nanostructures were characterized, measuring their hydrodynamic diameter and ξ-potential and also evaluating their time-stability in biological relevant media. Taking advantage of emissive properties of the not-iodinated BODIPY analogue (BL01), nanoassemblies based on aCD and BL01 were investigated as model system to get insight on entanglement of BODIPY in the amphiphile in aqueous dispersion, pointing out that BODIPY is well-entrapped in monomeric form (τ ≅ 6.5 ns) within the colloidal carriers. Also morphology and fluorescence emission properties were elucidated after casting the solution on glass. BL01@SC6OH is easily detectable in cytoplasm of HCT116 cell lines, evidencing the remarkable intracellular penetration of this nanoassembly similar to free BODIPY. On the same cell lines, the photodynamically active assembly BL01I/aCD shows toxicity upon irradiation. Despite the fact that free BL01I is more PDT active than its assembly, aCD can modulate the cell uptake of BODIPY, pointing out the potential of this system for in vivo PDT application.

Liquid crystalline nanoparticles encapsulating cisplatin and docetaxel combination for targeted therapy of breast cancer

Cancer remains a leading cause of death. A combination of anticancer agents can effectively kill cancer through multiple pathways; however, improvements to their delivery are needed. Hence, docetaxel and cisplatin-loaded liquid crystalline nanoparticles with folic acid were prepared for effective and targeted anticancer therapy. Notably, hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin/cisplatin complexes in 0.9% NaCl solution were used for the prevention of possible aquation of cisplatin, which would otherwise lead to severe adverse effects. The optimized nanoparticles exhibited small particle size, high drug loading capacity (>90%), and controlled drug release profiles. In vitro cell cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that the optimized nanoparticles were taken up by folate receptor-expressing cells to a greater extent than non-folate expressing cells, which is attributable to folate-specific endocytosis of the optimized nanoparticles. Enhanced expression of apoptotic markers (Bax, p21, and cleaved caspase-3) along with enhanced anti-migration effects in MDA-MB-231 cells following treatment suggests that the optimized nanoparticles provide an effective treatment for metastatic breast cancer. These results were further supported by in vivo findings obtained for a MDA-MB-231 tumor xenograft model. Altogether, the optimized nanoparticles may potentially be developed as an effective treatment modality for folate-targeted metastatic breast cancer treatment.

Intermolecular G-Quadruplex Induces Hyaluronic Acid-DNA Superpolymers Causing Cancer Cell Swelling, Blebbing, and Death

Over the past decade, nanomedicine has gained considerable attraction through its relevance, for example, in "smart" delivery, thus creating platforms for novel treatments. Here, we report a natural polymer-DNA conjugate that undergoes self-assembly in a K⁺-dependent fashion to form a G-quadruplex (GQ) and generate superpolymeric structures. We derivatized a thiolated conjugate of the naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan polymer hyaluronic acid (HASH) with short G-rich DNA (HASH-DNA) that can form an intermolecular noncanonical GQ structure. Gel mobility shift assay and circular dichroism measurements confirmed HASH conjugation to DNA and K⁺-dependent GQ formation, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy results indicated that the addition of K⁺ to the HASH-DNA conjugate led to the formation of micron-range structures, whereas control samples remained unordered and as a nebulous globular form. Confocal microscopy of a fluorescently labeled form of the superpolymer verified increased cellular uptake. The HASH-DNA conjugates showed toxicity in HeLa cells, whereas a scrambled DNA (Mut) conjugate HASH-Mut showed no cytotoxicity, presumably because of nonformation of the superpolymeric structure. To understand the mechanism of cell death and if the superpolymeric structure is responsible for it, we monitored the cell size and observed an average of 23% increase in size compared to 4.5% in control cells at 4.5 h. We believe that cellular stress is generated presumably by the intracellular assembly of this large superpolymeric nanostructure causing cell blebbing with no exit option. This approach provides a new strategy of cellular delivery of a targeted naturally occurring polymer and a novel way to induce superpolymeric structure formation that acts as a therapeutic.

Enhancement of 5-FU sensitivity by the proapoptotic rpL3 gene in p53 null colon cancer cells through combined polymer nanoparticles

Colon cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide and the therapy with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is mainly limited due to resistance. Recently, we have demonstrated that nucleolar stress upon 5-FU treatment leads to the activation of ribosome-free rpL3 (L3) as proapoptotic factor. In this study, we analyzed L3 expression profile in colon cancer tissues and demonstrated that L3 mRNA amount decreased with malignant progression and the intensity of its expression was inversely related to tumor grade and Bcl-2/Bax ratio. With the aim to develop a combined therapy of 5-FU plus plasmid encoding L3 (pL3), we firstly assessed the potentiation of the cytotoxic effect of 5-FU on colon cancer cells by L3. Next, 10 μM 5-FU and 2 μg of pL3 were encapsulated in biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) chemically conjugated with HA to achieve active tumor-targeting ability in CD44 overexpressing cancer cells. We showed the specific intracellular accumulation of NPs in cells and a sustained release for 5-FU and L3. Analysis of cytotoxicity and apoptotic induction potential of combined NPs clearly showed that the 5-FU plus L3 were more effective in inducing apoptosis than 5-FU or L3 alone. Furthermore, we show that the cancer-specific chemosensitizer effect of combined NPs may be dependent on L3 ability to affect 5-FU efflux by controlling P-gp (P-glycoprotein) expression. These results led us to propose a novel combined therapy with the use of 5-FU plus L3 in order to establish individualized therapy by examining L3 profiles in tumors to yield a better clinical outcomes.

Five-Part Pentameric Nanocomplex Shows Improved Efficacy of Doxorubicin in CD44+ Cancer Cells

The CD44 receptor is common among many cancer types where overexpression is synonymous with poor prognosis in prostate, glioma, and breast cancer. More notably CD44 overexpression has been shown in a number of different cancer stem cells (CSC) which are present in many solid tumors and drive growth, recurrence, and resistance to conventional therapies. Triple negative breast cancer CSCs correlate to worse prognosis and early relapse due to higher drug resistance and increased tumor heterogeneity and thus are prime targets for anticancer therapy. To specifically target cells overexpressing CD44 receptors, including CSCs, we synthesized a pentameric nanocomplex (PNC) containing gold nanoparticles, doxorubicin (Dox) conjugated to thiolated hyaluronic acid via an acid-labile hydrazone bond, and thiolated poly(ethylene glycol) DNA CD44 aptamer. In vitro drug release was highest at 8 h time point at acidic pH (pH 4.7) and in 10 mM glutathione. The PNC is almost an order of magnitude more effective than Dox alone in CD44+ cells versus CD44 low cells. Functionally, the PNC reduced CSC self-renewal. The PNC provides a therapeutic strategy that can improve the efficiency of Dox and decrease nontargeted toxicity thereby prolonging its use to individual patients.

Hybrid Lipid/Polymer Nanoparticles for Pulmonary Delivery of siRNA: Development and Fate Upon In Vitro Deposition on the Human Epithelial Airway Barrier

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, the downregulation of genes involved in the pathogenesis of severe lung diseases through local siRNA delivery appears an interesting therapeutic approach. In this study, we propose novel hybrid lipid-polymer nanoparticles (hNPs) consisting of poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) and dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) as siRNA inhalation system.

METHODS

A panel of DPPC/PLGA hNPs was prepared by emulsion/solvent diffusion and fully characterized. A combination of model siRNAs against the sodium transepithelial channel (ENaC) was entrapped in optimized hNPs comprising or not poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) as third component. siRNA-loaded hNPs were characterized for encapsulation efficiency, release kinetics, aerodynamic properties, and stability in artificial mucus (AM). The fate and cytotoxicity of hNPs upon aerosolization on a triple cell co-culture model (TCCC) mimicking human epithelial airway barrier were assessed. Finally, the effect of siRNA-loaded hNPs on ENaC protein expression at 72 hours was evaluated in A549 cells.

RESULTS

Optimized muco-inert hNPs encapsulating model siRNA with high efficiency were produced. The developed hNPs displayed a hydrodynamic diameter of ∼150 nm, a low polydispersity index, a negative ζ potential close to -25 mV, and a peculiar triphasic siRNA release lasting for 5 days, which slowed down in the presence of PEI. siRNA formulations showed optimal in vitro aerosol performance after delivery with a vibrating mesh nebulizer. Furthermore, small-angle X-ray scattering analyses highlighted an excellent stability upon incubation with AM, confirming the potential of hNPs for direct aerosolization on mucus-lined airways. Studies in TCCC confirmed that fluorescent hNPs are internalized inside airway epithelial cells and do not exert any cytotoxic or acute proinflammatory effect. Finally, a prolonged inhibition of ENaC protein expression was observed in A549 cells upon treatment with siRNA-loaded hNPs.

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate the great potential of hNPs as carriers for pulmonary delivery of siRNA, prompting toward investigation of their therapeutic effectiveness in severe lung diseases.

Irinotecan and 5-fluorouracil-co-loaded, hyaluronic acid-modified layer-by-layer nanoparticles for targeted gastric carcinoma therapy

For targeted gastric carcinoma therapy, hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified layer-by-layer nanoparticles (NPs) are applied for improving anticancer treatment efficacy and reducing toxicity and side effects. The aim of this study was to develop HA-modified NPs for the co-loading of irinotecan (IRN) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). A novel polymer–chitosan (CH)–HA hybrid formulation (HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs) consisting of poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and IRN as the core, CH and 5-FU as a shell on the core and HA as the outmost layer was prepared. Its morphology, average size, zeta potential and drug encapsulation ability were evaluated. Human gastric carcinoma cells (MGC803 cells) and cancer-bearing mice were used for the testing of in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo antitumor efficiency of NPs. HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs displayed enhanced antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo than non-modified NPs, single drug-loaded NPs and drugs solutions. The results demonstrate that HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs can achieve impressive antitumor activity and the novel targeted drug delivery system offers a promising strategy for the treatment of gastric cancer.

Porphyrin photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy and its applications

In 1841, the extraction of hematoporphyrin from dried blood by removing iron marked the birth of the photosensitizer. The last twenty years has witnessed extensive research in the application of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in tumor-bearing (or other diseases) animal models and patients. The period has seen development of photosensitizers from the first to the third generation, and their evolution from simple to more complex entities. This review focuses on porphyrin photosensitizers and their effect on tumors, mediated via several pathways involved in cell necrosis, apoptosis or autophagic cell death, and the preventive and therapeutic application of PDT against atherosclerosis.

A novel potential nanophototherapeutic based on the assembly of an amphiphilic cationic β-cyclodextrin and an anionic porphyrin

The development of cyclodextrin nanoassemblies as useful carriers for photosensitizer drugs (PS) delivery in biological environment is a topic of increasing interest. In this paper, we present a spectroscopic investigation on a nanosystem based on an amphiphilic cationic β-cyclodextrin derivative (CD-N) and an anionic porphyrin (TPPS). Nanoassemblies were prepared by hydration of an organic film containing the two species. The system was characterized by complementary techniques such as UV-vis, stationary and time-resolved fluorescence, and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) at different TPPS/CD-N molar ratios. Time-resolved fluorescence data showed that, at all the investigated molar ratios, TPPS is present both as self-aggregated species and monomers forming supramolecular adducts with CD-N. Moreover, DLS measurements evidenced families of aggregates having hydrodynamic radii ranging between 50 and 350 nm and the size distribution profile depending on the TPPS/CD-N molar ratio. At the highest CD-N concentration, the hydrodynamic radii of the aggregates were nearly the same as those of neat CD-N in the absence of TPPS (50 nm). No aging phenomena were registered, pointing out the high stability of these nanoassemblies in aqueous solution for at least a month. Preliminary studies on the internalization in tumoral cells and subsequent irradiation for PDT application were carried out. The results support the feasibility of these nanoaggregates to promote PS internalization in HeLa cells, inducing cell death upon visible light irradiation.

Strategies for optimizing the delivery to tumors of macrocyclic photosensitizers used in photodynamic therapy (PDT)

This review briefly summaries the principles and mechanisms of action of photodynamic therapy (PDT) as concerns its application in the oncological field, highlighting its drawbacks and some of the strategies that have been or are being explored to overcome them. The major aim is to increase the efficiency and selectivity of the photosensitizer (PS) uptake in the cancer cells for optimizing the PDT effects on tumors while sparing normal cells. Some attempts to achieve this are based on the conjugation of the PS to biomolecules (small ligands, peptides) functioning as carriers with the ability to efficiently penetrate cells and/or specifically recognize and bind proteins/receptors overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells. Alternatively, the PS can be entrapped in nanocarriers derived from various types of materials that can target the tumor by exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects. The use of nanocarriers is particularly attractive because it allows the simultaneous delivery of more than one drug with the possibility of combining PDT with other therapeutic modalities.

Novel Curcumin Liposome Modified with Hyaluronan Targeting CD44 Plays an Anti-Leukemic Role in Acute Myeloid Leukemia in Vitro and in Vivo

Curcumin has been widely used as a food additive for centuries and has been recently explored for its anti-inflammatory and antitumor properties. Although curcumin is pharmacologically safe and efficacious to certain cancers, its role against acute myeloid leukemia (AML) still remains unclear, and it lacks clinical application due to low water solubility and low in vivo bioavailability. To address these issues, we developed a novel curcumin liposome modified with hyaluronan (HA-Cur-LPs) to specifically deliver curcumin to AML by targeting CD44 on AML cell surface. When compared with free curcumin and nontargeted liposome (Cur-LPs), the HA-Cur-LPs exhibited good stability, high affinity to CD44, increased cellular uptake, and more potent activity on inhibiting AML cell proliferation. The KG-1 cell implanted AML mice had significantly delayed, or even prevented, AML progression following treatment with 50 mg/kg of curcumin dose in the HA-Cur-LPs every 2 days for 2 weeks. Mechanistically, the anti-AML effects of HA-Cur-LPs were achieved by inhibiting Akt/ERK pathways and activating caspase-dependent apoptosis. Moreover, HA-Cur-LPs played a critical role in downregulation of DNMT1 expression in AML, leading to DNA hypomethylation and reactivation of tumor suppressor genes such as miR-223. The development and assessment of the HA-Cur-LPs in this study provide another potential choice for AML therapy, using HA-Cur-LPs as either a single treatment agent or in combination with other treatments.

Nanotechnology in Glycomics: Applications in Diagnostics, Therapy, Imaging, and Separation Processes

This review comprehensively covers the most recent achievements (from 2013) in the successful integration of nanomaterials in the field of glycomics. The first part of the paper addresses the beneficial properties of nanomaterials for the construction of biosensors, bioanalytical devices, and protocols for the detection of various analytes, including viruses and whole cells, together with their key characteristics. The second part of the review focuses on the application of nanomaterials integrated with glycans for various biomedical applications, that is, vaccines against viral and bacterial infections and cancer cells, as therapeutic agents, for in vivo imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and for selective drug delivery. The final part of the review describes various ways in which glycan enrichment can be effectively done using nanomaterials, molecularly imprinted polymers with polymer thickness controlled at the nanoscale, with a subsequent analysis of glycans by mass spectrometry. A short section describing an active glycoprofiling by microengines (microrockets) is covered as well.

Redox- and light-responsive alginate nanoparticles as effective drug carriers for combinational anticancer therapy

Nanoparticles have been extensively explored as effective means to deliver chemotherapeutic agents or photosensitizers for chemotherapy or photodynamic therapy (PDT) against cancer. In the present work, pheophorbide A (PheoA), a hydrophobic photosensitizer, was conjugated via a redox-sensitive disulfide linkage to alginate (PheoA-ALG). Anticancer agent, doxorubicin (DOX), was also loaded within the PheoA-ALG nanoparticles (DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs) and used as drug carriers for combinational antitumor treatment. The DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs were spherical in shape with a uniform diameter of approximately 210 nm. Redox-responsive drug releasing properties were shown by the DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs, with an accelerated amount of DOX and PheoA release observed in the presence of a high glutathione level (10 mM). Cellular uptake results showed that DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs were readily taken up by B16 tumor cells (murine melanoma) and enhanced DOX and PheoA uptake were detectable in the DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs-treated B16 cells in comparison to carrier free drugs. DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs also elicited intracellular ROS generation, which leads to enhanced toxicity in B16 cells. In vivo studies using B16 tumor-bearing mice further demonstrated that DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs were preferentially accumulated in tumor tissues, resulting in substantial inhibition of B16 tumor growth by chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy, which is also attributable to DOX/PheoA-ALG NP-elicited increase of serum INF-λ levels. Our results demonstrate a major potential of DOX/PheoA-ALG NPs for combinational cancer therapy.

The selective distribution of LYVE-1-expressing endothelial cells and reticular cells in the reticulo-endothelial system (RES)

LYVE-1, a receptor molecule for hyaluronan, is expressed in the lymphatic endothelium, blood sinus endothelium, and certain macrophage lineages. The present immunohistochemical study revealed a broader distribution of LYVE-1 in vascular endothelial cells of the murine lung, adrenal gland, and heart as well as the liver and spleen. In addition, sinus reticular cells-including sinuslining cells-in the medulla of the lymph node also intensely expressed LYVE-1. Ultrastructurally, immuno-gold particles for LYVE-1 were localized on the entire length of plasma membrane in all cell types. Most of these LYVE-1-expressing cells had previously been classified as the reticuloendothelial system (RES) specialized for eliminating foreign particles. An LPS stimulation decreased the LYVE-1 expression in macrophages but elevated the expression at mRNA and protein levels in the liver and lung, major organs for the elimination of blood-born waste substances. LYVE-1-expressing endothelial cells in these organs participated in the endocytosis of exogenous particles, and the uptake ability was conspicuously enhanced by the LPS challenge. Although the expression of the degrading enzyme, hyaluronidase, was generally low in the LYVE-1-expressing cells, they were topographically associated with a dense distribution of macrophages possessing hyaluronidase activities in each tissue. These findings suggest that the LYVE-1-expressing cells might be involved in the uptake of hyaluronan and other waste products as well as foreign particles circulating in the blood and lymph while participating in the subsequent degradation in relay with adjacent macrophage populations.

Intratracheal Administration of Hyaluronan-Cisplatin Conjugate Nanoparticles Significantly Attenuates Lung Cancer Growth in Mice

PURPOSE

To determine aerosol administration capability and therapeutic efficacy of the new formulation of hyaluronan cisplatin conjugates, HylaPlat™ (HA-Pt), for lung cancer treatment.

METHODS

In vitro formulation stability test, 2D and 3D spheroid cell culture and in vivo efficacy studies using mouse orthotopic allograft models were conducted.

RESULTS

The HA-Pt effectively attenuated cell growth in 2D and 3D cultures with IC50 of 2.62 and 5.36 μM, respectively, which were comparable to those with unconjugated control cisplatin-dependent growth inhibition (IC50 1.64 and 4.63 μM, respectively). A single dose of either 7.5 or 15 mg/kg HA-Pt (cisplatin equivalent) by intratracheal aerosol spray 7 days after Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell inoculation markedly inhibited growth of LLC allografts in mouse lungs and resulted in a 90 or 94% reduction of tumor nodule numbers, respectively, as compared to those from the PBS control. Cancer stem cells and cisplatin resistant cells marker, CD44 expression decreased in the tumor nodules of the HA-Pt but not in those of cisplatin treated groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study suggests that an intratracheal aerosol administration of the HA-Pt nanoparticles offers an effective strategy for lung cancer treatment and this treatment may induce only limited cisplatin resistance.

Hyaluronic acid-modified manganese-chelated dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles for the targeted CT/MR dual-mode imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common malignant tumor of the liver. The early and effective diagnosis has always been desired. Herein, we present the preparation and characterization of hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified, multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) targeting CD44 receptor-expressing cancer cells for computed tomography (CT)/magnetic resonance (MR) dual-mode imaging. We first modified amine-terminated generation 5 poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (G5.NH2) with an Mn chelator, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), fluorescein isothiocyanate (FI), and HA. Then, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were entrapped within the above raw product, denoted as G5.NH2-FI-DOTA-HA. The designed multifunctional NPs were formed after further Mn chelation and purification and were denoted as {(Au0)100G5.NH2-FI-DOTA(Mn)-HA}. These NPs were characterized via several different techniques. We found that the {(Au0)100G5.NH2-FI-DOTA(Mn)-HA} NPs exhibited good water dispersibility, stability under different conditions, and cytocompatibility within a given concentration range. Because both AuNPs and Mn were present in the product, {(Au0)100G5.NH2-FI-DOTA(Mn)-HA} displayed a high X-ray attenuation intensity and favorable r1 relaxivity, which are advantageous properties for targeted CT/MR dual-mode imaging. This approach was used to image HCC cells in vitro and orthotopically transplanted HCC tumors in a unique in vivo model through the CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis pathway. This work introduces a novel strategy for preparing multifunctional NPs via dendrimer nanotechnology.

Pluronic® P123/F127 mixed micelles delivering sorafenib and its combination with verteporfin in cancer cells

Here, we developed Pluronic® P123/F127 (poloxamer) mixed micelles for the intravenous delivery of the anticancer drug sorafenib (SRB) or its combination with verteporfin (VP), a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy that should complement well the cytotoxicity profile of the chemotherapeutic. SRB loading inside the core of micelles was governed by the drug:poloxamer weight ratio, while in the case of the SRB-VP combination, a mutual interference between the two drugs occurred and only specific ratios could ensure maximum loading efficiency. Coentrapment of SRB did not alter the photophysical properties of VP, confirming that SRB did not participate in any bimolecular process with the photosensitizer. Fluorescence resonance energy-transfer measurement of micelles in serum protein-containing cell-culture medium demonstrated the excellent stability of the system in physiologically relevant conditions. These results were in line with the results of the release study showing a release rate of both drugs in the presence of proteins slower than in phosphate buffer. SRB release was sustained, while VP remained substantially entrapped in the micelle core. Cytotoxicity studies in MDA-MB231 cells revealed that at 24 hours, SRB-loaded micelles were more active than free SRB only at very low SRB concentrations, while at 24+24 hours a prolonged cytotoxic effect of SRB-loaded micelles was observed, very likely mediated by the block in the S phase of the cell cycle. The combination of SRB with VP under light exposure was less cytotoxic than both the free combination and VP-loaded micelles + SRB-loaded micelles combination. This behavior was clearly explainable in terms of micelle uptake and intracellular localization. Besides the clear advantage of delivering SRB in poloxamer micelles, our results provide a clear example that each photochemotherapeutic combination needs detailed investigations on their particular interaction, and no generalization on enhanced cytotoxic effects should be derived a priori.