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Lee SA, Kuhs CT, Searles EK, Everitt HO, Landes CF, Link S. d-Band Hole Dynamics in Gold Nanoparticles Measured with Time-Resolved Emission Upconversion Microscopy. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:3501-3506. [PMID: 37023287 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c00622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The performance of photocatalysts and photovoltaic devices can be enhanced by energetic charge carriers produced from plasmon decay, and the lifetime of these energetic carriers greatly affects overall efficiencies. Although hot electron lifetimes in plasmonic gold nanoparticles have been investigated, hot hole lifetimes have not been as thoroughly studied in plasmonic systems. Here, we demonstrate time-resolved emission upconversion microscopy and use it to resolve the lifetime and energy-dependent cooling of d-band holes formed in gold nanoparticles by plasmon excitation and by following plasmon decay into interband and then intraband electron-hole pairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Christopher T Kuhs
- U.S. Army DEVCOM Army Research Laboratory-South, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Emily K Searles
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Henry O Everitt
- U.S. Army DEVCOM Army Research Laboratory-South, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Christy F Landes
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Smalley-Curl Institute, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Stephan Link
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Smalley-Curl Institute, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
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2
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van de Looij S, Hebels ER, Viola M, Hembury M, Oliveira S, Vermonden T. Gold Nanoclusters: Imaging, Therapy, and Theranostic Roles in Biomedical Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2022; 33:4-23. [PMID: 34894666 PMCID: PMC8778645 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.1c00475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
For the past two decades, atomic gold nanoclusters (AuNCs, ultrasmall clusters of several to 100 gold atoms, having a total diameter of <2 nm) have emerged as promising agents in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Owing to their small size, significant quantization occurs to their conduction band, which leads to emergent photonic properties and the disappearance of the plasmonic responses observed in larger gold nanoparticles. For example, AuNCs exhibit native luminescent properties, which have been well-explored in the literature. Using proteins, peptides, or other biomolecules as structural scaffolds or capping ligands, required for the stabilization of AuNCs, improves their biocompatibility, while retaining their distinct optical properties. This paved the way for the use of AuNCs in fluorescent bioimaging, which later developed into multimodal imaging combined with computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging as examples. The development of AuNC-based systems for diagnostic applications in cancer treatment was then made possible by employing active or passive tumor targeting strategies. Finally, the potential therapeutic applications of AuNCs are extensive, having been used as light-activated and radiotherapy agents, as well as nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic drugs, which can be bound to the capping ligand or directly to the AuNCs via different mechanisms. In this review, we present an overview of the diverse biomedical applications of AuNCs in terms of cancer imaging, therapy, and combinations thereof, as well as highlighting some additional applications relevant to biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne
M. van de Looij
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Erik R. Hebels
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Martina Viola
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mathew Hembury
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sabrina Oliveira
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department
of Biology, Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Faculty of
Science, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tina Vermonden
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS),
Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
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3
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Kim J, Kim JM, Ha M, Oh JW, Nam JM. Polysorbate- and DNA-Mediated Synthesis and Strong, Stable, and Tunable Near-Infrared Photoluminescence of Plasmonic Long-Body Nanosnowmen. ACS NANO 2021; 15:19853-19863. [PMID: 34807582 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c07319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Direct photoluminescence (PL) from metal nanoparticles (NPs) without chemical dyes is promising for sensing and imaging applications since this offers a highly tunable platform for controlling and enhancing the signals in various conditions and does not suffer from photobleaching or photoblinking. It is, however, difficult to synthesize metal NPs with a high quantum yield (QY), particularly in the near-infrared (NIR) region where deep penetration and reduced light scattering are advantageous for bioimaging. Herein, we designed and synthesized Au-Ag long-body nanosnowman structures (LNSs), facilitated by polysorbate 20 (Tween 20). The DNA-engineered conductive junction between the head and body parts results in a charge transfer plasmon (CTP) mode in the NIR region. The junction morphology can be controlled by the DNA sequence on the Au core, and polythymine and polyadenine induced thick and thin junctions, respectively. We found that the LNSs with a thicker conductive junction generates the stronger CTP peak and PL signal than the LNSs with a thinner junction. The Au-Ag LNSs showed much higher intensities in both PL and QY than widely studied Au nanorods with similar localized surface plasmon resonance wavelengths, and notably, the LNSs displayed high photostability and robust, sustainable PL signals under continuous laser exposure for >15 h. Moreover, the PL emission from Au-Ag LNSs could be imaged in a deeper scattering medium than fluorescent silica NPs. Finally, highly robust PL-based cell images can be obtained using Au-Ag LNSs without significant signal change while repetitively imaging cells. The results offer the insights in plasmonic NIR probe design, and show that chemical dye-free LNSs can be a very promising candidate with a high QY and a robust, reliable NIR PL signal for NIR sensing and imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyeon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Jae-Myoung Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Minji Ha
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Jeong-Wook Oh
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Jwa-Min Nam
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
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4
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Zheng J, Cheng X, Zhang H, Bai X, Ai R, Shao L, Wang J. Gold Nanorods: The Most Versatile Plasmonic Nanoparticles. Chem Rev 2021; 121:13342-13453. [PMID: 34569789 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanorods (NRs), pseudo-one-dimensional rod-shaped nanoparticles (NPs), have become one of the burgeoning materials in the recent years due to their anisotropic shape and adjustable plasmonic properties. With the continuous improvement in synthetic methods, a variety of materials have been attached around Au NRs to achieve unexpected or improved plasmonic properties and explore state-of-the-art technologies. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the latest progress on Au NRs, the most versatile anisotropic plasmonic NPs. We present a representative overview of the advances in the synthetic strategies and outline an extensive catalogue of Au-NR-based heterostructures with tailored architectures and special functionalities. The bottom-up assembly of Au NRs into preprogrammed metastructures is then discussed, as well as the design principles. We also provide a systematic elucidation of the different plasmonic properties associated with the Au-NR-based structures, followed by a discussion of the promising applications of Au NRs in various fields. We finally discuss the future research directions and challenges of Au NRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiapeng Zheng
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Xizhe Cheng
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Han Zhang
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Xiaopeng Bai
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Ruoqi Ai
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Lei Shao
- Beijing Computational Science Research Center, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jianfang Wang
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
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5
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Cai YY, Tauzin LJ, Ostovar B, Lee S, Link S. Light emission from plasmonic nanostructures. J Chem Phys 2021; 155:060901. [PMID: 34391373 DOI: 10.1063/5.0053320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of light emission from metallic nanoparticles has been a subject of debate in recent years. Photoluminescence and electronic Raman scattering mechanisms have both been proposed to explain the observed emission from plasmonic nanostructures. Recent results from Stokes and anti-Stokes emission spectroscopy of single gold nanorods using continuous wave laser excitation carried out in our laboratory are summarized here. We show that varying excitation wavelength and power change the energy distribution of hot carriers and impact the emission spectral lineshape. We then examine the role of interband and intraband transitions in the emission lineshape by varying the particle size. We establish a relationship between the single particle emission quantum yield and its corresponding plasmonic resonance quality factor, which we also tune through nanorod crystallinity. Finally, based on anti-Stokes emission, we extract electron temperatures that further suggest a hot carrier based mechanism. The central role of hot carriers in our systematic study on gold nanorods as a model system supports a Purcell effect enhanced hot carrier photoluminescence mechanism. We end with a discussion on the impact of understanding the light emission mechanism on fields utilizing hot carrier distributions, such as photocatalysis and nanothermometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Yu Cai
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Lawrence J Tauzin
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Behnaz Ostovar
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Stephen Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Stephan Link
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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6
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One-photon excited photoluminescence of gold nanospheres and its application in prostate specific antigen detection via fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). Talanta 2021; 228:122242. [PMID: 33773714 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles are known to exhibit appealing intrinsic plasmon-modulated photoluminescence (PL) properties which can be explored in various fluorescence-based sensing applications. In this paper, we evaluate the PL of different-sized gold nanospheres (AuNSs) under one-photon excitation (1PE) and develop a sensitive homogeneous immunoassay for the detection of prostate specific antigen (PSA) in colloidal suspension via fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). The 1PE PL of AuNSs of three different sizes are evaluated in solution phase under excitation at 405 nm via steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy measurements, while FCS analysis emphasizes the feasibility of using 1PE PL properties to monitor their diffusion behavior. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) assays coupled with PL spectral profile analysis performed on single-particles-like structures conform the plasmonic origin of the detected PL and validate their potential of synthesized AuNSs as fluorescent probes in bioimaging and bioassays. Finally, to the best of our knowledge, we provide the first demonstration of the successful use of the 1PE PL of the synthesized AuNSs as probes for the FCS-based one-step label-free sensitive optical detection of PSA biomarker. The approach consisting in monitoring the diffusion of the AuNSs-oligomers induced by the interaction of anti-PSA-conjugated AuNSs with PSA molecules is successfully validated for the detection of PSA levels as low as 4.4 ng/ml in solution. Considering that the development of rapid, efficient and label-free biosensing methods is of continuous interest nowadays, we are confident that our results may have a strong impact on medicine towards more efficient, sensitive and reliable diagnosis.
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7
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Zirkelbach J, Gmeiner B, Renger J, Türschmann P, Utikal T, Götzinger S, Sandoghdar V. Partial Cloaking of a Gold Particle by a Single Molecule. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 125:103603. [PMID: 32955324 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.125.103603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Extinction of light by material particles stems from losses incurred by absorption or scattering. The extinction cross section is usually treated as an additive quantity, leading to the exponential laws that govern the macroscopic attenuation of light. In this Letter, we demonstrate that the extinction cross section of a large gold nanoparticle can be substantially reduced-i.e., the particle becomes more transparent-if a single molecule is placed in its near field. This partial cloaking effect results from a coherent plasmonic interaction between the molecule and the nanoparticle, whereby each of them acts as a nanoantenna to modify the radiative properties of the other.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Gmeiner
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
| | - Jan Renger
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
| | - Pierre Türschmann
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
| | - Tobias Utikal
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
| | - Stephan Götzinger
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
- Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
- Graduate School in Advanced Optical Technologies (SAOT), Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen D-91052, Germany
| | - Vahid Sandoghdar
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
- Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
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8
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Zhao T, Li Z, Park K, Vaia RA, Knappenberger KL. Photoluminescence of single gold nanorods following nonlinear excitation. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:061101. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0021388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tian Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Zehua Li
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Kyoungweon Park
- Air Force Research Laboratory, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, USA
| | - Richard A. Vaia
- Air Force Research Laboratory, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, USA
| | - Kenneth L. Knappenberger
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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9
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Hu A, Zhang W, Liu S, Wen T, Zhao J, Gong Q, Ye Y, Lu G. In situ scattering of single gold nanorod coupling with monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:20734-20740. [PMID: 31650146 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr06152e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We investigated in situ the interaction between a single gold nanorod and monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) by atomic force microscopy nanomanipulation and single-particle spectroscopy. We observed that the resonant scattering peak of the hybrid redshifted, the full width at half maximum of the scattering resonance narrowed and the scattering intensity increased compared with those of the same nanorod before coupling with monolayer TMDCs. These results were understood with the aid of finite-difference time-domain simulations, the Fano model, and the classical oscillator model. Also, the spectral features varied with the distance between the nanorod and TMDCs, and the interaction was mainly attributed to the resonant energy transfer effect. Our findings clarify the influence of TMDCs on the plasmonic resonance and contribute to a deeper understanding of the plasmon exciton interaction. These results are beneficial for the optimization of plasmonic nanostructure-TMDC hybrids and their corresponding applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiqin Hu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. and Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Weidong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. and Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Te Wen
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Jingyi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Qihuang Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. and Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Yu Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Guowei Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. and Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
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10
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Theodosiou M, Boukos N, Sakellis E, Zachariadis M, Efthimiadou EK. Gold nanoparticle decorated pH-sensitive polymeric nanocontainers as a potential theranostic agent. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 183:110420. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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11
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Fernandez-Cuesta I, West MM, Montinaro E, Schwartzberg A, Cabrini S. A nanochannel through a plasmonic antenna gap: an integrated device for single particle counting. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:2394-2403. [PMID: 31204419 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00186g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic nanoantennas are ideal for single molecule detection since they nano-focus the light beyond diffraction and enhance the optical fields by several orders of magnitude. But delivering the molecules into these nanometric hot-spots is a real challenge. Here, we present a dynamic sensor, with label-free real-time detection capabilities, which can detect and count molecules and particles one by one in their native environment independently of their concentration. To this end, we have integrated a 35 nm gap plasmonic bowtie antenna with a 30 nm × 30 nm nanochannel. The channel runs through the antenna gap, and delivers the analyte directly into the hot spot. We show how the antenna probes into zeptoliter volumes inside the nanochannel by observing the dark field resonance shift during the filling process of a non-fluorescent liquid. Moreover, we detect and count single quantum dots, one by one, at ultra-high concentrations of up to 25 mg mL-1. The nano-focusing of light, reduces the observation volume in five orders of magnitude compared to the diffraction limited spot, beating the diffraction limit. These results prove the unique sensitivity of the device and in the future can be extended to detection of a variety of molecules for biomedical applications.
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12
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Cai YY, Sung E, Zhang R, Tauzin LJ, Liu JG, Ostovar B, Zhang Y, Chang WS, Nordlander P, Link S. Anti-Stokes Emission from Hot Carriers in Gold Nanorods. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:1067-1073. [PMID: 30657694 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The origin of light emission from plasmonic nanoparticles has been strongly debated lately. It is present as the background of surface-enhanced Raman scattering and, despite the low yield, has been used for novel sensing and imaging applications because of its photostability. Although the role of surface plasmons as an enhancing antenna is widely accepted, the main controversy regarding the mechanism of the emission is its assignment to either radiative recombination of hot carriers (photoluminescence) or electronic Raman scattering (inelastic light scattering). We have previously interpreted the Stokes-shifted emission from gold nanorods as the Purcell effect enhanced radiative recombination of hot carriers. Here we specifically focused on the anti-Stokes emission from single gold nanorods of varying aspect ratios with excitation wavelengths below and above the interband transition threshold while still employing continuous wave lasers. Analysis of the intensity ratios between Stokes and anti-Stokes emission yields temperatures that can only be interpreted as originating from the excited electron distribution and not a thermally equilibrated phonon population despite not using pulsed laser excitation. Consistent with this result as well as previous emission studies using ultrafast lasers, the power-dependence of the upconverted emission is nonlinear and gives the average number of participating photons as a function of emission wavelength. Our findings thus show that hot carriers and photoluminescence play a major role in the upconverted emission.
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13
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Wax T, Dey S, Chen S, Luo Y, Zou S, Zhao J. Excitation Wavelength-Dependent Photoluminescence Decay of Hybrid Gold/Quantum Dot Nanostructures. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:14151-14156. [PMID: 31458107 PMCID: PMC6644928 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid nanostructures comprised of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) and quantum dots (QDs) have been found to exhibit unique, new optical properties due to the interaction that occurs between the MNPs and QDs. The aim of this work is to understand how the exciton-plasmon interaction in these systems is dependent on the excitation wavelength. The nanoassemblies consisted of gold (Au) NPs coated in a silica (SiO2) shell of a controlled thickness and core/shell CdSe/CdS QDs adsorbed onto the SiO2 shells. Our findings show that the photoluminescence lifetimes of the hybrid constructs are dependent on the excitation wavelength relative to the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) of the Au NPs. When the excitation wavelength is closer to the LSPR, the photoluminescence decay of the hybrid structures is faster. We demonstrate that by tuning the excitation wavelength close to the resonance, there is an enhancement in the exciton-plasmon coupling between the Au NPs and QDs resulting in a shortening in the QD photoluminescence lifetime. We then propose a possible mechanism to explain this excitation wavelength-dependent phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terianna
J. Wax
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Swayandipta Dey
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Shutang Chen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Yi Luo
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Shengli Zou
- Institute
of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, 97 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3136, United States
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, Florida 32816, United States
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14
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Cheng Y, Zhang W, Zhao J, Wen T, Hu A, Gong Q, Lu G. Understanding photoluminescence of metal nanostructures based on an oscillator model. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 29:315201. [PMID: 29757167 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aac44f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Scattering and absorption properties of metal nanostructures have been well understood based on the classic oscillator theory. Here, we demonstrate that photoluminescence of metal nanostructures can also be explained based on a classic model. The model shows that inelastic radiation of an oscillator resembles its resonance band after external excitation, and is related to the photoluminescence from metallic nanostructures. The understanding based on the classic oscillator model is in agreement with that predicted by a quantum electromagnetic cavity model. Moreover, by correlating a two-temperature model and the electron distributions, we demonstrate that both one-photon and two-photon luminescence of the metal nanostructures undergo the same mechanism. Furthermore, the model explains most of the emission characteristics of the metallic nanostructures, such as quantum yield, spectral shape, excitation polarization and power dependence. The model based on an oscillator provides an intuitive description of the photoluminescence process and may enable rapid optimization and exploration of the plasmonic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Cheng
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics & Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Department of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
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15
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Hu J, Wu M, Jiang L, Zhong Z, Zhou Z, Rujiralai T, Ma J. Combining gold nanoparticle antennas with single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) to study DNA hairpin dynamics. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:6611-6619. [PMID: 29578224 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr08397a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The association of a plasmonic nano-antenna with single-molecule FRET technique presents new prospects to investigate the dynamics of biological molecules. However, the presence of a plasmonic nano-antenna significantly modifies the FRET rate and efficiency; this makes its applicability to the prevalent single-molecule FRET experiments unclear. Herein, using gold nanoparticle antennas of different sizes and DNA hairpins labelled with FRET pairs (Cy3 and Cy5) as the model system, we performed experiments to study the folding dynamics of single DNA hairpins at various salt concentrations. Our results indicate that gold nanoparticle antennas can enhance single-molecule fluorescence of Cy3 and Cy5 up to 3-5 folds, substantially reduce the FRET efficiency, and alter the obtained FRET efficiency histograms. However, the folding dynamics of DNA hairpins remains unaffected, and the correct kinetic and dynamic information can still be extracted from the seriously modified FRET efficiencies. Therefore, our experiments demonstrate the feasibility and compatibility for applying plasmonic nano-antennas to the mostly used single-molecule FRET assays, which provide a broad range of possibilities for the future applications of these nano-antennas in studying various essential biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyong Hu
- School of Physics, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, People's Republic of China.
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16
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Liu F, Dong C, Ren J. A study of the diffusion dynamics and concentration distribution of gold nanospheres (GNSs) without fluorescent labeling inside live cells using fluorescence single particle spectroscopy. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:5309-5317. [PMID: 29503992 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr08722e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Colloidal gold nanospheres (GNSs) have become important nanomaterials in biomedical applications due to their special optical properties, good chemical stability, and biocompatibility. However, measuring the diffusion coefficients or concentration distribution of GNSs within live cells accurately without any extra fluorescent labeling in situ has still not been resolved. In this work, a single particle method is developed to study the concentration distribution of folic acid-modified GNSs (FA-GNSs) internalized via folate receptors, and investigates their diffusion dynamics within live cells using single particle fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). We optimized the experimental conditions and verified the feasibility of 30 nm GNSs without extra fluorescence labeling being used for single particle detection inside live cells. Then, the FCS characterization strategy was used to measure the concentration and diffusion coefficient distributions of GNSs inside live cells and the obtained results were basically in agreement with those obtained by TEM. The results demonstrate that our strategy is characterized as an in situ, nondestructive, rapid and dynamic method for the assay of live cells, and it may be widely used in the further design of GNP-based drug delivery and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangchao Liu
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China.
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17
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Cai YY, Liu JG, Tauzin LJ, Huang D, Sung E, Zhang H, Joplin A, Chang WS, Nordlander P, Link S. Photoluminescence of Gold Nanorods: Purcell Effect Enhanced Emission from Hot Carriers. ACS NANO 2018; 12:976-985. [PMID: 29283248 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b07402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate, experimentally and theoretically, that the photon emission from gold nanorods can be viewed as a Purcell effect enhanced radiative recombination of hot carriers. By correlating the single-particle photoluminescence spectra and quantum yields of gold nanorods measured for five different excitation wavelengths and varied excitation powers, we illustrate the effects of hot carrier distributions evolving through interband and intraband transitions and the photonic density of states on the nanorod photoluminescence. Our model, using only one fixed input parameter, describes quantitatively both emission from interband recombination and the main photoluminescence peak coinciding with the longitudinal surface plasmon resonance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Yu Cai
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Jun G Liu
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Lawrence J Tauzin
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Da Huang
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Eric Sung
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Anneli Joplin
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Wei-Shun Chang
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Peter Nordlander
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Stephan Link
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, §Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ⊥Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, and ∥Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University , 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
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18
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Light Emission from Plasmonic Nanostructures Enhanced with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3605. [PMID: 29483560 PMCID: PMC5826936 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22019-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
In the surface-enhanced fluorescence (SEF) process, it is well known that the plasmonic nanostructure can enhance the light emission of fluorescent emitters. With the help of atomic force microscopy, a hybrid system consisting of a fluorescent nanodiamond and a gold nanoparticle was assembled step-by-step for in situ optical measurements. We demonstrate that fluorescent emitters can also enhance the light emission from gold nanoparticles which is judged through the intrinsic anti-Stokes emission owing to the nanostructures. The light emission intensity, spectral shape, and lifetime of the hybrid system were dependent on the coupling configuration. The interaction between gold nanoparticles and fluorescent emitter was modelled based on the concept of a quantised optical cavity by considering the nanodiamond and the nanoparticle as a two-level energy system and a nanoresonator, respectively. The theoretical calculations reveal that the dielectric antenna effect can enhance the local field felt by the nanoparticle, which contributes more to the light emission enhancement of the nanoparticles rather than the plasmonic coupling effect. The findings reveal that the SEF is a mutually enhancing process. This suggests the hybrid system should be considered as an entity to analyse and optimise surface-enhanced spectroscopy.
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19
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Carattino A, Caldarola M, Orrit M. Gold Nanoparticles as Absolute Nanothermometers. NANO LETTERS 2018; 18:874-880. [PMID: 29272135 PMCID: PMC5817619 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b04145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Nanothermometry is a challenging field that can open the door to intriguing questions ranging from biology and medicine to material sciences. Gold nanorods are excellent candidates to act as nanoprobes because they are reasonably bright emitters upon excitation with a monochromatic source. Gold nanoparticles are commonly used in photothermal therapy as efficient transducers of electromagnetic radiation into heat. In this work we use the spectrum of the anti-Stokes emission from gold nanorods irradiated in resonance to measure the absolute temperature of the nanoparticles and their surrounding medium without the need for a previous calibration. We show a 4 K accuracy in the determination of the temperature of the medium with spectral measurements of 180 s integration time. This procedure can be easily implemented in any microscope capable of acquiring emission spectra, and it is not limited to any specific shape of nanoparticles.
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20
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Park JE, Kim S, Son J, Lee Y, Nam JM. Highly Controlled Synthesis and Super-Radiant Photoluminescence of Plasmonic Cube-in-Cube Nanoparticles. NANO LETTERS 2016; 16:7962-7967. [PMID: 27960474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b04271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The plasmonic properties of metal nanostructures have been heavily utilized for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and metal-enhanced fluorescence (MEF), but the direct photoluminescence (PL) from plasmonic metal nanostructures, especially with plasmonic coupling, has not been widely used as much as SERS and MEF due to the lack of understanding of the PL mechanism, relatively weak signals, and the poor availability of the synthetic methods for the nanostructures with strong PL signals. The direct PL from metal nanostructures is beneficial if these issues can be addressed because it does not exhibit photoblinking or photobleaching, does not require dye-labeling, and can be employed as a highly reliable optical signal that directly depends on nanostructure morphology. Herein, we designed and synthesized plasmonic cube-in-cube (CiC) nanoparticles (NPs) with a controllable interior nanogap in a high yield from Au nanocubes (AuNCs). In synthesizing the CiC NPs, we developed a galvanic void formation (GVF) process, composed of replacement/reduction and void formation steps. We unraveled the super-radiant character of the plasmonic coupling-induced plasmon mode which can result in highly enhanced PL intensity and long-lasting PL, and the PL mechanisms of these structures were analyzed and matched with the plasmon hybridization model. Importantly, the PL intensity and quantum yield (QY) of CiC NPs are 31 times and 16 times higher than those of AuNCs, respectively, which have shown the highest PL intensity and QY reported for metallic nanostructures. Finally, we confirmed the long-term photostability of the PL signal, and the signal remained stable for at least 1 h under continuous illumination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong-Eun Park
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungi Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiwoong Son
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeonhee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jwa-Min Nam
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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21
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Carattino A, Keizer VIP, Schaaf MJM, Orrit M. Background Suppression in Imaging Gold Nanorods through Detection of Anti-Stokes Emission. Biophys J 2016; 111:2492-2499. [PMID: 27926850 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2016.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Metallic nanoparticles have opened the possibility of imaging, tracking, and manipulating biological samples without time limitations. Their low photoluminescence quantum yield, however, makes them hard to detect under high background conditions. In this study we show that it is possible to image gold nanorods by detecting their anti-Stokes emission under resonant excitation. We show that even in the membrane of a cell containing the fluorescent dye Atto 647N, the signal/background of the anti-Stokes emission can be >10, while it is impossible to image the particles with the Stokes emission. The main advantage of this technique is that it does not require any major change in existing fluorescence imaging setups, only the addition of an appropriate short-pass filter in the detection path.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Veer I P Keizer
- Institute of Biology and Molecular Cell Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Marcel J M Schaaf
- Institute of Biology and Molecular Cell Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Michel Orrit
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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22
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Bonacchi S, Cantelli A, Battistelli G, Guidetti G, Calvaresi M, Manzi J, Gabrielli L, Ramadori F, Gambarin A, Mancin F, Montalti M. Photoswitchable NIR-Emitting Gold Nanoparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:11064-8. [PMID: 27513299 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201604290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Photo-switching of the NIR emission of gold nanoparticles (GNP) upon photo-isomerization of azobenzene ligands, bound to the surface, is demonstrated. Photophysical results confirm the occurrence of an excitation energy transfer process from the ligands to the GNP that produces sensitized NIR emission. Because of this process, the excitation efficiency of the gold core, upon excitation of the ligands, is much higher for the trans form than for the cis one, and t→c photo-isomerization causes a relevant decrease of the GNP NIR emission. As a consequence, photo-isomerization can be monitored by ratiometric detection of the NIR emission upon dual excitation. The photo-isomerization process was followed in real-time through the simultaneous detection of absorbance and luminescence changes using a dedicated setup. Surprisingly, the photo-isomerization rate of the ligands, bound to the GNP surface, was the same as measured for the chromophores in solution. This outcome demonstrated that excitation energy transfer to gold assists photo-isomerization, rather than competing with it. These results pave the road to the development of new, NIR-emitting, stimuli-responsive nanomaterials for theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bonacchi
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Cantelli
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giulia Battistelli
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Gloria Guidetti
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Matteo Calvaresi
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jeannette Manzi
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luca Gabrielli
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Ramadori
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy
| | | | - Fabrizio Mancin
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Montalti
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
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23
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Bonacchi S, Cantelli A, Battistelli G, Guidetti G, Calvaresi M, Manzi J, Gabrielli L, Ramadori F, Gambarin A, Mancin F, Montalti M. Photoswitchable NIR-Emitting Gold Nanoparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201604290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bonacchi
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Andrea Cantelli
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Giulia Battistelli
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Gloria Guidetti
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Matteo Calvaresi
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Jeannette Manzi
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
| | - Luca Gabrielli
- Department of Chemical Sciences; Università degli Studi di Padova; Italy
| | - Federico Ramadori
- Department of Chemical Sciences; Università degli Studi di Padova; Italy
| | | | - Fabrizio Mancin
- Department of Chemical Sciences; Università degli Studi di Padova; Italy
| | - Marco Montalti
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”; University of Bologna; Via Selmi 2 40126 Bologna Italy
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