Comprehensive advances in the synthesis, fluorescence mechanism and multifunctional applications of red-emitting carbon nanomaterials

Red emitting fluorescent carbon nanomaterials have drawn significant scientific interest in recent years due to their high quantum yield, water-dispersibility, photostability, biocompatibility, ease of surface functionalization, low cost and eco-friendliness. The red emissive characteristics of fluorescent carbon nanomaterials generally depend on the carbon source, reaction time, synthetic approach/methodology, surface functional groups, average size, and other reaction environments, which directly or indirectly help to achieve red emission. The importance of several factors to achieve red fluorescent carbon nanomaterials is highlighted in this review. Numerous plausible theories have been explained in detail to understand the origin of red fluorescence and tunable emission in these carbon-based nanostructures. The above advantages and fluorescence in the red region make them a potential candidate for multifunctional applications in various current fields. Therefore, this review focused on the recent advances in the synthesis approach, mechanism of fluorescence, and electronic and optical properties of red-emitting fluorescent carbon nanomaterials. This review also explains the several innovative applications of red-emitting fluorescent carbon nanomaterials such as biomedicine, light-emitting devices, sensing, photocatalysis, energy, anticounterfeiting, fluorescent silk, artificial photosynthesis, etc. It is hoped that by choosing appropriate methods, the present review can inspire and guide future research on the design of red emissive fluorescent carbon nanomaterials for potential advancements in multifunctional applications.

Encapsulation of Dual Emitting Giant Quantum Dots in Silica Nanoparticles for Optical Ratiometric Temperature Nanosensors

Accurate temperature measurements with a high spatial resolution for application in the biomedical fields demand novel nanosized thermometers with new advanced properties. Here, a water dispersible ratiometric temperature sensor is fabricated by encapsulating in silica nanoparticles, organic capped PbS@CdS@CdS “giant” quantum dots (GQDs), characterized by dual emission in the visible and near infrared spectral range, already assessed as efficient fluorescent nanothermometers. The chemical stability, easy surface functionalization, limited toxicity and transparency of the silica coating represent advantageous features for the realization of a nanoscale heterostructure suitable for temperature sensing. However, the strong dependence of the optical properties on the morphology of the final core–shell nanoparticle requires an accurate control of the encapsulation process. We carried out a systematic investigation of the synthetic conditions to achieve, by the microemulsion method, uniform and single core silica coated GQD (GQD@SiO2) nanoparticles and subsequently recorded temperature-dependent fluorescent spectra in the 281-313 K temperature range, suited for biological systems. The ratiometric response—the ratio between the two integrated PbS and CdS emission bands—is found to monotonically decrease with the temperature, showing a sensitivity comparable to bare GQDs, and thus confirming the effectiveness of the functionalization strategy and the potential of GQD@SiO2 in future biomedical applications.

Intracellular ratiometric temperature sensing using fluorescent carbon dots

Highly sensitive non-invasive temperature sensing is critical for studying fundamental biological processes and applications in medical diagnostics. Nanoscale-based thermometers are promising non-invasive probes for precise temperature sensing with subcellular resolution. However, many of these systems have limitations as they rely on fluorescence intensity changes, deconvolution of peaks, or the use of hybrid systems to measure thermal events. To address this, we developed a fluorescence-based ratiometric temperature sensing approach using carbon dots prepared via microwave synthesis. These dots possess dual fluorescence signatures in the blue and red regions of the spectrum. We observed a linear response as a function of temperature in the range of 5-60 °C with a thermal resolution of 0.048 K-1 and thermal sensitivity of 1.97% C-1. Temperature-dependent fluorescence was also observed in HeLa cancer cells over a range of 32-42 °C by monitoring changes in the red-to-blue fluorescence signatures. We demonstrate that the ratiometric approach is superior to intensity-based thermal sensing because it is independent of the intracellular concentration of the optical probe. These findings suggest that dual-emitting carbon dots can be an effective tool for in vitro and possibly in vivo fluorescence nanothermometry.

Surface state-controlled C-dot/C-dot based dual-emission fluorescent nanothermometers for intra-cellular thermometry

Fluorescence-based nanothermometers have potential to offer accuracy in the measurement of temperature using non-contact approaches. Herein, a C-dot/C-dot based dual-emission temperature sensing platform is fabricated through the electrostatic self-assembly of two kinds of fluorescent CDs with opposite charges. This dual-emission platform consists of several nearly-spherical CDs with two emission centers in blue (440 nm) and orange (590 nm) regions. The orange fluorescence exhibits discernible response to external temperatures in the range of ∼15 to 85 °C; on the other hand, the blue fluorescence remains nearly constant. A continuous fluorescence color change in response to temperature from orange to blue can be clearly observed by the naked eye. Thus, the as-prepared C-dot based dual-emission nanospheres can be used for optical thermometry with high reproducibility and sensitivity (0.93%/°C). Detailed characterization shows that temperature (in the 15-85 °C window) impacts the surface states of orange emissive CDs, leaving the blue emissive CDs unaffected. A model is proposed to explain the observations. Finally, by taking advantage of the excellent biocompatibility and stability, the CD based fluorescent nanothermometer is successfully used for the visual measurement of intracellular temperature variations.

A double fluorescent nanoprobe based on phosphorus/nitrogen co-doped carbon dots for detecting dichromate ions and dopamine

An “on–off–on” fluorescent phosphorus/nitrogen co-doped carbon dot (PNCD) probe was explored for the determination of Cr(vi) and dopamine resulting from the inner filter effect (IFE). The blue-emitting carbon dots with high quantum yields of 25.47% as well as a narrow size distribution were synthesized by a rapid, convenient route using H₃PO₄ and ethylenediamine as the precursors without any surface passivation. A wide linear region in the range of 7–70 μM with a detection limit of 0.71 μM was achieved for Cr(vi). Moreover, the proper reductants can weaken the inner filter effect to recover the PNCD fluorescence by converting Cr(vi) into Cr(iii). Therefore, the PNCDs/Cr(vi) hybrid could also be used as an “off–on” fluorescent probe for detecting dopamine (DA) with a detection limit of 0.49 μM. Consequently, the PNCDs could serve as a powerful fluorescent bi-sensor for detection of both Cr(vi) and DA in practical applications.

An “on–off–on” fluorescent phosphorus/nitrogen co-doped carbon dot (PNCD) probe was explored for the determination of Cr(vi) and dopamine resulting from the inner filter effect (IFE).

Carbon nanodots as a fluorescence sensor for rapid and sensitive detection of Cr(VI) and their multifunctional applications

In this work, carbon nanodots (CDs) were prepared via a green and convenient microwave assisted pyrolysis of ionic liquids (ILs) and ethylenediamine. It was found that the synthesized IL-based CDs (ILCDs) exhibited a superior selective sensitivity for Cr(VI). Photoluminescence (PL) properties of the ILCDs were applied to determine the concentration of Cr(VI), which showed a wide linear range and a low detection limit. We also received promising results by using the ILCDs for Cr(VI) detection in real samples. Moreover, the synthesized ILCDs can also work as a PL nanosensors to determine temperature and pH value in solution.