Et3B-mediated two- and three-component coupling reactions via radical decarbonylation of α-alkoxyacyl tellurides: single-step construction of densely oxygenated carboskeletons

Umpolung Synthesis of Selenoesters and Telluroesters via the Photoinduced Coupling of Acylsilanes with Electrophilic Chalcogen Reagents

A novel synthesis of selenoesters and telluroesters based on the reactions of nucleophilic siloxycarbenes, which were generated by the visible-light-induced isomerization of the corresponding aroyl-, heteroaroyl-, or alkenoylsilanes, with electrophilic chalcogen reagents was developed. The use of appropriate selenides or ditellurides/Lewis acids enabled the coupling at temperatures below ambient temperature with a broad substrate scope and high functional-group tolerance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of a synthetic method for selenoesters and telluroesters involving the combination of an acylanion equivalent and cationic chalcogen synthons.

Total Synthesis of Ganoapplanin Enabled by a Radical Addition/Aldol Reaction Cascade

The total synthesis of the Ganoderma meroterpenoid ganoapplanin, an inhibitor of T-type voltage-gated calcium channels, is reported. Our synthetic approach is based on the convergent coupling of a readily available aromatic polyketide scaffold with a bicyclic terpenoid fragment. The three contiguous stereocenters of the terpenoid fragment, two of which are quaternary, were constructed by a diastereoselective, titanium-mediated iodolactonization. For the fusion of the two fragments and to simultaneously install the crucial biaryl bond, we devised a highly effective two-component coupling strategy. This event involves an intramolecular 6-exo-trig radical addition of a quinone monoacetal followed by an intermolecular aldol reaction. A strategic late-stage oxidation sequence allowed the selective installation of the remaining oxygen functionalities and the introduction of the characteristic spiro bisacetal structure of ganoapplanin.

Et3Al/Light-Promoted Radical-Polar Crossover Reactions of α-Alkoxyacyl Tellurides

Here, we report new radical-polar crossover reactions of α-alkoxy carbon radicals for constructing highly oxygenated molecules with contiguous stereocenters. The method employs a 370 nm UV light-emitting diode (LED) for the photoexcitation of α-alkoxyacyl telluride, and Et3Al as the radical initiator and terminator. First, Et3Al and UV LED promoted radical coupling between the α-alkoxyacyl telluride and cyclopentenone via C-Te bond homolysis, CO expulsion, and C-C bond formation. Second, Et3Al converted the radical species to the corresponding aluminum enolate. Third, the second C-C bond formation occurred via a polar mechanism: intermolecularly with aldehydes/ketones and intramolecularly with epoxide, producing aldol and SN2 adducts, respectively. The present coupling reactions increase the molecular complexity in a single step by stereoselective formation of the two hindered C-C bonds. The devised method is expected to be useful for the expeditious assembly of densely oxygenated natural products.

Synthesis of C-Alkyl Glycosides from Alkyl Bromides and Glycosyl Carboxylic Acids via Ni/Photoredox Dual Catalysis

C-Alkyl glycosides, an important class of C-glycosides, are widely found in various drugs and natural products. The synthesis of C-alkyl glycosides has attracted considerable attention. Herein, we developed a Ni/photoredox catalyzed decarboxylative C(sp3)-C(sp3) coupling reaction of stable glycosylcarboxylic acids with simple aliphatic bromides to generate C-alkyl glycosides. The method successfully linked several functional molecular fragments (natural products or drugs) to a sugar moiety, showing the extensive application prospects of this transformation. Controlled experiments and DFT calculations demonstrated that the reaction pathway contains a free radical process, and a possible mechanism is proposed.

Formal Total Synthesis of Batrachotoxin Enabled by Radical and Weix Coupling Reactions

Batrachotoxin (1), originally isolated from a Columbian poison-dart frog, is a steroidal alkaloid. Its 6/6/6/5-membered carbocycle (ABCD-ring) contains two double bonds, one nitrogen, and five oxygen functionalities. We developed a radical-based convergent strategy and realized the total synthesis of 1 in 28 steps. The AB-ring and D-ring fragments were efficiently synthesized and linked by exploiting a powerful Et3B/O2-mediated radical coupling reaction. Vinyl triflate and vinyl bromide were then utilized for a Pd/Ni-promoted Weix coupling reaction to cyclize the C-ring. A hydroxy group of the C-ring was stereoselectively installed by a decarboxylative hydroxylation reaction to prepare an advanced intermediate of our previous total synthesis of 1.

Total Synthesis of Taxol Enabled by Intermolecular Radical Coupling and Pd-Catalyzed Cyclization

Taxol (1) is a clinically used antineoplastic diterpenoid. The tetracyclic ring system comprises a 6/8/6-membered carbocycle (ABC-ring) and a fused oxetane ring (D-ring) embedded with a bridgehead double bond and decorated with multiple oxygen functionalities. Here, we report a convergent total synthesis of this exceedingly complex natural product. The C-ring fragment was designed to possess a bromocyclohexenone and an extra tetrahydrofuran ring to control the reactivity and selectivity, as well as to minimize functional group manipulations en route to 1. The α-alkoxyacyl telluride of the A-ring served as a radical precursor, and intermolecular radical coupling with the C-ring realized the installation of the C2- and C3-stereocenters and reductive removal of the bromide. After the C8-quaternary stereocenter was constructed by exploiting the three-dimensional shape of the intermediate, the C11-vinyl triflate of A-ring and the C8-methyl ketone of C-ring were utilized for Pd(0)-catalyzed cyclization of the central eight-membered B-ring with the bridgehead olefin. Adjustment of the oxidation level and attachment of the oxetane D-ring completed the total synthesis of 1 (28 steps, as the longest linear sequence). The fragment design principle and implementation of the powerful radical coupling reaction described in the present synthesis provide valuable information for planning and executing syntheses of diverse densely oxygenated terpenoids.

Growing Utilization of Radical Chemistry in the Synthesis of Pharmaceuticals

Our current unhealthy lifestyle and the exponential surge in the population getting affected by a variety of diseases have made pharmaceuticals or drugs an imperative part of life, making the development of innovative strategies for drug discovery or the introduction of refined, cost-effective and modern technologies for the synthesis of clinically used drugs, a need of the hour. Ever since their discovery, free radicals and radical cations or anions as reactive intermediates have captivated the chemists, resulting in an exceptional utilization of these moieties throughout the field of chemical synthesis, owing to their unprecedented and widespread reactivity. Sticking with the idea of not judging the book by its cover, despite the conventional thought process of radicals being unstable and difficult to control entities, scientists and academicians around the globe have done an appreciable amount of work utilizing both persistent as well as transient radicals for a variety of organic transformations, exemplifying them with the synthesis of significant biologically active pharmaceutical ingredients. This review truly accounts for the organic radical transformations including radical addition, radical cascade cyclization, radical/radical cross-coupling, coupling with metal-complexes and radical cations coupling with nucleophiles, that offers fascinating and unconventional approaches towards the construction of intricate structural frameworks of marketed APIs with high atom- and step-economy; complementing the otherwise employed traditional methods. This tutorial review presents a comprehensive package of diverse methods utilized for radical generation, featuring their reactivity to form critical bonds in pharmaceutical total synthesis or in building key starting materials or intermediates of their synthetic journey, acknowledging their excellence, downsides and underlying mechanisms, which are otherwise poorly highlighted in the literature. Despite great achievements over the past few decades in this area, many challenges and obstacles are yet to be unraveled to shorten the distance between the academics and the industry, which are all discussed in summary and outlook.

Visible-Light-Mediated Synthesis of C-Alkyl Glycosides via Glycosyl Radical Addition and Aryl Migration

A visible-light-induced glycoarylation of activated olefins has been accomplished. Glycosyl radicals are generated via radical transfer strategies between (TMS)3SiOH and glycosyl bromides. Subsequent radical translocation and rapid 1,4-aryl migration form β-sugar amide derivatives, and eight types of sugars are compatible with this reaction. Further, the cascade reaction produced a quaternary carbon center with good functional group adaptability and high regioselectivity in mild conditions.

Total Synthesis of Taxol Enabled by Inter- and Intramolecular Radical Coupling Reactions

Taxol is a clinically used drug for the treatment of various types of cancers. Its 6/8/6/4-membered ring (ABCD-ring) system is substituted by eight oxygen functional groups and flanked by four acyl groups, including a β-amino acid side chain. Here we report a 34-step total synthesis of this unusually oxygenated and intricately fused structure. Inter- and intramolecular radical coupling reactions connected the A- and C-ring fragments and cyclized the B-ring, respectively. Functional groups of the A- and C-rings were then efficiently decorated by employing newly developed chemo-, regio-, and stereoselective reactions. Finally, construction of the D-ring and conjugation with the β-amino acid delivered taxol. The powerful coupling reactions and functional group manipulations implemented in the present synthesis provide new valuable information for designing multistep target-oriented syntheses of diverse bioactive natural products.

A Photoinduced, Nickel-Catalyzed Reaction for the Stereoselective Assembly of C-Linked Glycosides and Glycopeptides

C-Alkyl glycosides and glycoproteins exist in natural products and are prized for their role as carbohydrate mimics in drug design. However, a practical strategy that merges glycosyl donors with readily accessible reagents, derived from abundant carboxylic acid and amine feedstocks, is yet to be conceived. Herein, we show that a nickel catalyst promotes C-C coupling between glycosyl halides and aliphatic acids or primary amines (converted into redox-active electrophiles in one step), in the presence of Hantzsch ester and LiI (or Et₃ N) under blue LED illumination to deliver C-alkyl glycosides with high diastereoselectivity. Mechanistic studies support the photoinduced formation of alkyl radicals that react with a glycosyl nickel species generated in situ to facilitate cross-coupling. Through this manifold, innate CO₂ H and NH₂ motifs embedded within amino acids and oligopeptides are selectively capped and functionalized to afford glycopeptide conjugates through late-stage glycosylation.

Glycosyl Radical-Based Synthesis of C-Glycoamino Acids and C-Glycopeptides

Radical-based reactions usually exhibit excellent functional-group compatibilities due to their mild initiation conditions. Glycosyl radical involved C-glycosylation modifications are important strategies to achieve highly regio- and chemoselective constructions of C-glycosidic bonds or C-glycoside linkages of peptides and proteins. In this Concept, we cover recent developments in glycosyl radical-based synthesis of unnatural amino acids and late-stage modification of peptides and proteins, and provide a preliminary outlook on the possible development of this direction in the future.

Tellurium in carbohydrate synthesis

In this article, we discuss about the influence of tellurium in carbohydrate synthesis. Mainly the chapter focuses on the importance of the tellurium during the synthesis of glycosides and during the oxidation of glucose.

Synthesis of Reverse Glycosyl Fluorides via Organophotocatalytic Decarboxylative Fluorination of Uronic Acids

An efficient protocol for organophotocatalytic synthesis of reverse glycosyl fluorides (RGFs) is established relying on 9-mesityl-10-methyl-acridinium (Mes-Acr+)-mediated oxidative decarboxylative fluorination of uronic acids. Both pentofuranoid and hexopyranoid uronic acids are...

Photoinduced Decarboxylative Radical Coupling Reaction of Multiply Oxygenated Structures by Catalysis of Pt-Doped TiO2

A new reaction system was devised for decarboxylative radical coupling reactions by heterogeneous semiconductor photoredox catalysis. When an α-alkoxy carboxylic acid and Pt-doped TiO₂ in EtOAc were irradiated with a violet light-emitting diode at room temperature, the photogenerated electron hole of TiO₂ oxidatively induced the ejection of CO₂ via the formation of a carboxyl radical to produce the corresponding α-alkoxy radical. C(sp³)-C(sp³) bond formation between the radicals led to dimers with reductive conversion of protons to H₂ by the photogenerated electron. Alternatively, in the presence of an electron-deficient olefin, an intermolecular radical addition reaction occurred, resulting in the formation of a 1,4-adduct via single-electron reduction and subsequent protonation. These operationally simple and mild transformations are amenable to the one-step assembly of densely oxygenated linear and branched carbon chains.

Total Syntheses of Hikosamine and Hikizimycin

Hikizimycin (1) is a potent anthelmintic and antibacterial natural product. The core 4-amino-4-deoxyundecose sugar (hikosamine) of 1 consists of an 11-carbon linear chain substituted with one amino group and 10 hydroxy groups. The C1 and C6O positions of the 10 contiguous stereocenters are further appended by a cytosine base and a 3-amino-3-deoxyglucose sugar (kanosamine), respectively. Since the structural determination in the early 1970s, synthetic chemists have been attracted by this exceedingly complex structure and have investigated the full chemical construction of 1. These synthetic efforts culminated in four syntheses of the protected hikosamines and two total syntheses of 1. In this Perspective, we summarize the strategies and tactics utilized in these syntheses to showcase the evolution of modern natural product synthesis.

Glycosyl-Radical-Based Synthesis of C-Alkyl Glycosides via Photomediated Defluorinative gem-Difluoroallylation

We have developed a stereoselective, glycosyl radical-based method for the synthesis of C-alkyl glycosides via a photomediated defluorinative gem-difluoroallylation reaction. We demonstrate for the first time that glycosyl radicals, generated from glycosyl bromides, can readily participate in a photomediated radical polar crossover process, affording a diverse array of gem-difluoroalkene containing C-glycosides. Notable features of this method include scalability, mild conditions, broad substrate scope, and suitability for the late-stage modification of complex molecules.

Evolution towards green radical generation in total synthesis

The use of radicals as intermediates in total synthesis has evolved since their initial use in the latter half of the twentieth century. Radical generation from metal hydride methodologies has shifted to "greener" techniques including catalytic metal-mediated systems, electrochemical and photoredox-mediated processes. This review will focus on these classical and contemporary methods for radical generation and their applications in recent total syntheses.

1,2-trans-Stereoselective Synthesis of C-Glycosides of 2-Deoxy-2-amino-sugars Involving Glycosyl Radicals

We report for the first time that the imidate radical can be efficiently added to glycals to generate glycosyl radicals, based on which a general, toxic-reagent-free synthesis of C-glycosides of 2-deoxy-2-amino sugars has been developed. Complementary to previous strategies, the reaction is 1,2-trans-stereoselective and could use aryl alkenes as substrates. The late-stage functionalization and density functional theory calculations are reported.

Acyl metalloids: conformity and deviation from carbonyl reactivity

Once considered as mere curiosities, acyl metalloids are now recognized for their utility in enabling chemical synthesis. This perspective considers the reactivity displayed by acylboron, -silicon, -germanium, and tellurium species. By highlighting the role of these species in various transformations, we demonstrate how differences between the comprising elements result in varied reaction outcomes. While acylboron compounds are primarily used in polar transformations, germanium and tellurium species have found utility as radical precursors. Applications of acylsilanes are comparatively more diverse, owing to the possibility to access both radical and polar chemistry.

Synthesis of quaternary centres by single electron reduction and alkylation of alkylsulfones

A new method for the generation of tertiary radicals through single electron reduction of alkylsulfones promoted by Zn and 1,10-phenanthroline has been developed. These radicals could be employed in the Giese reaction, affording structurally diverse quaternary products in good yields. With the high modularity and functional group compatibility of sulfones, the utility of this method was demonstrated by intramolecular and iterative reactions to give complex structures. The radical generation process was investigated by control experiments and theoretical calculations.

A new method for the generation of tertiary radicals through single electron reduction of alkylsulfones promoted by Zn and 1,10-phenanthroline has been developed.

Convergent Assembly of Highly Oxygenated Natural Products Enabled by Intermolecular Radical Reactions

Natural products with a high ratio of sp³-hybridized atoms and oxygen-substituted stereogenic centers represent privileged structures for the development of pharmaceuticals and chemical probes. The multiple oxygen functionalities of these natural products endow their potent and selective biological activities, although they significantly heighten the challenge of their chemical assemblies. We focused on developing efficient strategies for the total syntheses of this biologically and chemically important class of molecules. A convergent strategy is more advantageous than a linear strategy for designing a shorter synthetic route because a convergent strategy enables direct coupling of functionalized fragments whereas a linear strategy involves stepwise construction of a molecule from its terminus. Radical reactions are preferred over polar reactions for the coupling of heavily functionalized and sp³-rich fragments, as they allow for C(sp³)-C(sp³) coupling without damaging diverse polar functional groups. With these considerations in mind, we designed radical-based convergent strategies for assembling highly oxygenated natural products. Here we summarize the concise total syntheses of asimicin (1, antibiotic activity), 1-hydroxytaxinine (2, cytotoxicity), polyoxins (3, antifungal activity), and hikizimycin (4, anthelmintic activity) as representative examples. Retrosynthetic disconnection at the central part of these molecules produces highly substituted α-alkoxy radicals as synthons. In the synthetic direction, the α-alkoxy radicals were generated from the corresponding α-alkoxyacyl tellurides in a unified fashion, and then utilized for four distinct coupling reactions. Formation of the Et radical from Et₃B and O₂ homolytically cleaves the C-Te bond of α-alkoxyacyl telluride, and the facile expulsion of carbon monoxide from the acyl radical leads to the α-alkoxy radical. Dimerization of the stabilized α-alkoxy radical resulted in the core structure of 1 with 10 contiguous stereocenters. The coupling adduct was derivatized to 1 through the attachment of two different carbon chains (17 steps as the longest linear sequence). Alternatively, intermolecular addition reactions of the α-alkoxy radicals to electron-deficient C═C, C═N, and C═O bonds, followed by Et₃B-mediated radical termination, led to the core structures of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Intermolecular coupling between the α-alkoxy radical and the cyclohexenone derivative and intramolecular pinacol coupling gave rise to the 6/8/6-fused ring system of 2, which was transformed to 2 (26 steps). The two amino acid moieties of 3 were prepared by combining the α-alkoxy radical and the oxime and were then condensed to complete the synthesis of 3 (11 steps). Furthermore, a combination of α-alkoxyacyl telluride and Et₃B/O₂ realized a novel addition reaction of α-alkoxy radicals to aldehydes. This method was incorporated in the construction of the core 4-amino-5-deoxyundecose with 10 contiguous stereocenters, which was fabricated with two appendage structures to deliver 4. The four total syntheses described here demonstrate the versatility and robustness of intermolecular radical reactions. These syntheses will also provide new insights for retrosynthetic analyses in the field of organic chemistry and streamline synthetic routes to various bioactive natural products with multiple oxygen functionalities.

Synthesis of Reverse Glycosyl Fluorides and Rare Glycosyl Fluorides Enabled by Radical Decarboxylative Fluorination of Uronic Acids

An efficient protocol for synthesizing reverse glycosyl fluorides is described, relying on silver-promoted decarboxylative fluorination of structurally diverse pentofuran- and hexopyranuronic acids under the mild reaction conditions. The potential applications of the reaction are further demonstrated by converting readily available d-uronic acid derivatives into uncommon d-/l-glycosyl fluorides through a C1-to-C5 switch strategy. The reaction mechanism is corroborated by 5-exo-trig radical cyclization of allyl α-d-C-glucopyranuronic acid triggered by decarboxylative fluorination.

Et3 B/Et2 AlCl/O2 -Mediated Radical Coupling Reaction between α-Alkoxyacyl Tellurides and 2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde Derivatives

A newly devised radical-based strategy enabled coupling between multiply oxygenated α-alkoxyacyl tellurides and 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde derivatives. A reagent combination of Et₃ B, Et₂ AlCl, and O₂ promoted the formation of the α-alkoxy carbon radical from the α-alkoxyacyl telluride and the addition of the radical to the carbonyl group of 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The reaction chemo- and stereoselectively forged the hindered C-C bond between two oxygen-functionalized carbons at ambient temperature. The method was applied to the preparation of 12 coupling adducts with three to six contiguous stereocenters and to the concise synthesis of an antitumor compound, LLY-283.

Total Synthesis of Diospyrodin and Its Three Diastereomers

Antibacterial diospyrodin (1) was synthesized in 13 steps. Et₃B and O₂ promoted the formation of an α-alkoxy carbon radical from l-ribose-derived α-alkoxyacyl telluride 5, which reacted with d-glucose-derived aldehyde 4. The radical addition realized the convergent assembly of the contiguously hydroxylated carbon-chain of 3-α and greatly contributed to streamlining the synthetic route. Compound 3-α was transformed not only to 1 but also to its three diastereomers by functional group manipulations.

Convergent Total Synthesis of Hikizimycin Enabled by Intermolecular Radical Addition to Aldehyde

Hikizimycin (1), which exhibits powerful anthelmintic activity, has the most densely functionalized structure among nucleoside antibiotics. A central 4-amino-4-deoxyundecose of 1 possesses 10 contiguous stereocenters on a C1-C11 linear chain and is decorated with a cytosine base at C1 and a 3-amino-3-deoxyglucose at C6-OH. These distinctive structural features of 1 make it an extremely challenging target for de novo construction. Herein, we report a convergent total synthesis of 1 from four known components: 3-azide-3-deoxyglucose derivative 4, bis-TMS-cytosine 5, d-mannose 9, and d-galactose derivative 10. We first designed and devised a novel radical coupling reaction between multiply hydroxylated aldehydes and α-alkoxyacyl tellurides. The generality and efficiency of this process was demonstrated by the coupling of 7c and 8, which were readily accessible from two hexoses, 9 and 10, respectively. Et₃B and O₂ rapidly induced decarbonylative radical formation from α-alkoxyacyl telluride 8, and intermolecular addition of the generated α-alkoxy radical to aldehyde 7c yielded 4-amino-4-deoxyundecose 6-α with installation of the desired C5,6-stereocenters. Subsequent attachments of the cytosine with 5 and of the 3-azide-3-deoxyglucose with 4 were realized through selective activation of the C1-acetal and selective deprotection of the C6-hydroxy group. Finally, the 3 amino and 10 hydroxy groups were liberated in a single step to deliver the target 1. Thus, the combination of the newly developed radical-coupling and protective-group strategies minimized the functional group manipulations and thereby enabled the synthesis of 1 from 10 in only 17 steps. The present total synthesis demonstrates the versatility of intermolecular radical addition to aldehyde for the first time and offers a new strategic design for multistep target-oriented syntheses of various nucleoside antibiotics and other bioactive natural products.

Catalytic and Photochemical Strategies to Stabilized Radicals Based on Anomeric Nucleophiles

Carbohydrates, one of the three primary macromolecules of living organisms, play significant roles in various biological processes such as intercellular communication, cell recognition, and immune activity. While the majority of established methods for the installation of carbohydrates through the anomeric carbon rely on nucleophilic displacement, anomeric radicals represent an attractive alternative because of their functional group compatibility and high anomeric selectivities. Herein, we demonstrate that anomeric nucleophiles such as C1 stannanes can be converted into anomeric radicals by merging Cu(I) catalysis with blue light irradiation to achieve highly stereoselective C(sp³)-S cross-coupling reactions. Mechanistic studies and DFT calculations revealed that the C-S bond-forming step occurs via the transfer of the anomeric radical directly to a sulfur electrophile bound to Cu(II) species. This pathway complements a radical chain observed for photochemical metal-free conditions where a disulfide initiator can be activated by a Lewis base additive. Both strategies utilize anomeric nucleophiles as efficient radical donors and achieve a switch from an ionic to a radical pathway. Taken together, the stability of glycosyl nucleophiles, a broad substrate scope, and high anomeric selectivities observed for the thermal and photochemical protocols make this novel C-S cross coupling a practical tool for late-stage glycodiversification of bioactive natural products and drug candidates.

Synthesis of Enantioenriched α-Deuterated α-Amino Acids Enabled by an Organophotocatalytic Radical Approach

A mild, versatile organophotoredox protocol has been developed for the preparation of diverse, enantioenriched α-deuterated α-amino acids. Distinct from the well-established two-electron transformations, this radical-based strategy offers the unrivaled capacity of the convergent unification of readily accessible feedstock carboxylic acids and a chiral methyleneoxazolidinone fragment and the simultaneous highly diastereo-, chemo-, and regioselective incorporation of deuterium. Furthermore, the approach has addressed the long-standing challenge of the installation of sterically demanding side chains into α-amino acids.

Recent Progress in Steroid Synthesis Triggered by the Emergence of New Catalytic Methods

The rich biology associated with steroids dictates a growing demand for the new synthetic strategies that would improve the access to natural and unnatural representatives of this family. The recent advances in the field of catalysis have greatly impacted the field of natural product synthesis including the synthesis of steroids. This article provides a short overview of the recent progress in the synthesis of steroids that was enabled by the advances in catalysis.

Radical Dehydroxymethylative Fluorination of Carbohydrates and Divergent Transformations of the Resulting Reverse Glycosyl Fluorides

A mild and convenient method for the synthesis of reverse glycosyl fluorides (RGFs) has been developed that is based on the silver-promoted radical dehydroxymethylative fluorination of carbohydrates. A salient feature of the reaction is that furanoid and pyranoid carbohydrates furnish structurally diverse RGFs bearing a wide variety of functional groups in good to excellent yields. Intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer experiments revealed that the reaction involves an underexploited radical fluorination that proceeds via β-fragmentation of sugar-derived primary alkoxyl radicals. Structurally divergent RGFs were obtained by catalytic C-F bond activation, and our method thus offers a concise and efficient strategy for the synthesis of reverse glycosides by late-stage diversification of RGFs. The potential of this method is showcased by the preparation and diversification of sotagliflozin, leading to the discovery of a promising SGLT2 inhibitor candidate.

Recent development in the synthesis of C-glycosides involving glycosyl radicals

C-Glycosylation involving glycosyl radical intermediates is a particularly effective approach to access C-glycosides, which are core units of a great number of natural products, bioactive compounds and marketed drugs.

Total Synthesis of 1-Hydroxytaxinine

1-Hydroxytaxinine (1) is a cytotoxic taxane diterpenoid. Its central eight-membered B-ring possesses four oxygen-functionalized centers (C1, C2, C9, and C10) and two quaternary carbon centers (C8 and C15), and is fused with six-membered A- and C-rings. The densely functionalized and intricately fused structure of 1 makes it a highly challenging synthetic target. Reported here is an efficient radical-based strategy for assembling 1 from A- and C-ring fragments. The A-ring bearing an α-alkoxyacyl telluride moiety underwent intermolecular coupling with the C-ring fragment by a Et₃ B/O₂ -promoted decarbonylative radical formation. After construction of the C8-quaternary stereocenter, a pinacol coupling reaction using a low-valent titanium reagent formed the B-ring with stereoselective installation of the C1,C2-diol. Subsequent manipulations at the A- and C-rings furnished 1 in 26 total steps.

[Development of Synthetic Strategies for Densely Oxygenated Natural Products: Total Synthesis of Lactacystin and Zaragozic Acid C Using Photochemical C(sp3)-H Functionalization]

This review describes two novel synthetic routes from (S)-pyroglutaminol to (+)-lactacystin, a potent inhibitor of the 20S proteasome and from d-gluconolactone derivative to zaragozic acid C, a potent squalene synthase inhibitor. In lactacystin synthesis, the photoinduced intermolecular C(sp³)-H alkynylation and intramolecular C(sp³)-H acylation chemoselectively and stereoselectively constructed the tetrasubstituted and trisubstituted carbon centers, respectively. In the synthesis of zaragozic acid C, the stereoselective installation of the two contiguous tetrasubstituted carbons was achieved by the photochemical intramolecular C(sp³)-H acylation of a densely oxygenated intermediate.

Construction of a 6/5/9-membered tricyclic structure of cladiellins via radical-polar crossover reaction

A three-component coupling reaction of structurally simple 6-8 was successfully applied for expeditious synthesis of the 6/5/9-membered tricyclic structure 3 of cladieunicellin D (1) and klysimplexin U (2). Upon treatment with the Et₃B/O₂ reagent system, α-alkoxyacyl telluride 6, six-membered enone 7, and (Z)-4-hexenal (8) were linked in one pot to provide the densely functionalized 5 via sequential decarbonylative radical generation, radical addition, boron enolate formation, and intermolecular aldol reaction. Subsequent Lewis acid-promoted reductive etherification and SiO₂-induced C10-epimerization gave rise to the cis-fused five-membered ether of 4. Finally, cyclization of the nine-membered ring was achieved by the ring-closing metathesis reaction, giving rise to 3. Compound 3 possesses the six stereocenters of 1 and 2, and would thus serve as an advanced intermediate for their total syntheses.

Forging C(sp3)-C(sp3) Bonds with Carbon-Centered Radicals in the Synthesis of Complex Molecules

Radical fragment coupling reactions that unite intricate subunits have become an important class of transformations within the arena of complex molecule synthesis. This Perspective highlights some of the early contributions in this area, as well as more modern applications of radical fragment couplings in the preparation of natural products. Additionally, emphasis is placed on contemporary advances that allow for radical generation under mild conditions as a driving force for the implementation of radical fragment couplings in total synthesis.

Convergent Synthesis of Taxol Skeleton via Decarbonylative Radical Coupling Reaction

The highly oxygenated 6/8/6-membered ABC-ring 2 of taxol was assembled in a convergent fashion. A decarbonylative radical reaction between α-alkoxyacyl telluride 4 and cyanocyclohexenone 5 linked the A- and C-rings and stereoselectively installed the C2- and C3-tertiary carbon centers of 3. After the C8-quaternary stereocenter was constructed, the C9-methyl ketone and the C11-vinyl triflate of 30 participated in Pd(0)-promoted cyclization of the eight-membered B-ring, giving rise to the taxol skeleton 2.

Transition-Metal-Free Synthesis of C-Glycosylated Phenanthridines via K2S2O8-Mediated Oxidative Radical Decarboxylation of Uronic Acids

We have developed an efficient protocol for the synthesis of C-glycosylated phenanthridines. Tetrafuranos-4-yl and pentapyranos-5-yl radicals, generated from K₂S₂O₈-mediated oxidative decarboxylation of furan- and pyranuronic acids, undergo attack to 2-isocyanodiphenyls and ensuing homolytic aromatic substitution to provide diverse C-glycosylated phenanthridines in satisfactory yields without resort to transition metals. This reaction tolerates various functional groups, and enables ready synthesis of complex oligosaccharide-based phenanthridines. The C-glycosylated phenanthridine derived from β-cyclodextrin has been prepared, which might be potential in medicinal and biological chemistry due to its flexible conformation.

Synthesis of the Tetracyclic Structure of Batrachotoxin Enabled by Bridgehead Radical Coupling and Pd/Ni-Promoted Ullmann Reaction

The steroidal ABCD-ring system of the potent neurotoxin batrachotoxin was efficiently assembled in a convergent fashion. Bridgehead radical coupling between the simple AB-ring and D-ring fragments (3 and 4) formed the sterically congested linkage at the C9-oxygen-attached tetrasubstituted carbon. The C-ring was then cyclized by the Pd/Ni-promoted Ullmann reaction of the vinyl triflate and vinyl bromide of 19, giving rise to tetracyclic structure 1.

Unified Total Synthesis of Polyoxins J, L, and Fluorinated Analogues on the Basis of Decarbonylative Radical Coupling Reactions

Polyoxins J (1 a) and L (1 b) are important nucleoside antibiotics. The complex and densely functionalized dipeptide structures of 1 a and 1 b contain thymine and uracil nucleobases, respectively. Herein we report the unified total synthesis of 1 a, 1 b, and their artificial analogues 1 c and 1 d with trifluorothymine and fluorouracil structures. Decarbonylative radical coupling between α-alkoxyacyl tellurides and a chiral glyoxylic oxime ether led to chemo- and stereoselective construction of the ribonucleoside α-amino acid structures of 1 a-d without damaging the preinstalled nucleobases. The high applicability of the radical-based methodology was further demonstrated by preparation of the trihydroxynorvaline moiety of 1 a-d. The two amino acid fragments were connected and elaborated into 1 a-d (longest linear sequence: 11 steps). Compounds 1 a and 1 b assembled in this way exhibited potent activity against true fungi, while only 1 d was active against Gram-positive bacteria.