1
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Algar WR, Massey M, Rees K, Higgins R, Krause KD, Darwish GH, Peveler WJ, Xiao Z, Tsai HY, Gupta R, Lix K, Tran MV, Kim H. Photoluminescent Nanoparticles for Chemical and Biological Analysis and Imaging. Chem Rev 2021; 121:9243-9358. [PMID: 34282906 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Research related to the development and application of luminescent nanoparticles (LNPs) for chemical and biological analysis and imaging is flourishing. Novel materials and new applications continue to be reported after two decades of research. This review provides a comprehensive and heuristic overview of this field. It is targeted to both newcomers and experts who are interested in a critical assessment of LNP materials, their properties, strengths and weaknesses, and prospective applications. Numerous LNP materials are cataloged by fundamental descriptions of their chemical identities and physical morphology, quantitative photoluminescence (PL) properties, PL mechanisms, and surface chemistry. These materials include various semiconductor quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, graphene derivatives, carbon dots, nanodiamonds, luminescent metal nanoclusters, lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles and downshifting nanoparticles, triplet-triplet annihilation nanoparticles, persistent-luminescence nanoparticles, conjugated polymer nanoparticles and semiconducting polymer dots, multi-nanoparticle assemblies, and doped and labeled nanoparticles, including but not limited to those based on polymers and silica. As an exercise in the critical assessment of LNP properties, these materials are ranked by several application-related functional criteria. Additional sections highlight recent examples of advances in chemical and biological analysis, point-of-care diagnostics, and cellular, tissue, and in vivo imaging and theranostics. These examples are drawn from the recent literature and organized by both LNP material and the particular properties that are leveraged to an advantage. Finally, a perspective on what comes next for the field is offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Russ Algar
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Melissa Massey
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Kelly Rees
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Rehan Higgins
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Katherine D Krause
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ghinwa H Darwish
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - William J Peveler
- School of Chemistry, Joseph Black Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K
| | - Zhujun Xiao
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Hsin-Yun Tsai
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Rupsa Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Kelsi Lix
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Michael V Tran
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Hyungki Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
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2
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Rivera SL, Espaillat A, Aditham AK, Shieh P, Muriel-Mundo C, Kim J, Cava F, Siegrist MS. Chemically Induced Cell Wall Stapling in Bacteria. Cell Chem Biol 2020; 28:213-220.e4. [PMID: 33238158 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Transpeptidation reinforces the structure of cell-wall peptidoglycan, an extracellular heteropolymer that protects bacteria from osmotic lysis. The clinical success of transpeptidase-inhibiting β-lactam antibiotics illustrates the essentiality of these cross-linkages for cell-wall integrity, but the presence of multiple, seemingly redundant transpeptidases in many species makes it challenging to determine cross-link function. Here, we present a technique to link peptide strands by chemical rather than enzymatic reaction. We employ biocompatible click chemistry to induce triazole formation between azido- and alkynyl-d-alanine residues that are metabolically installed in the peptidoglycan of Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria. Synthetic triazole cross-links can be visualized using azidocoumarin-d-alanine, an amino acid derivative that undergoes fluorescent enhancement upon reaction with terminal alkynes. Cell-wall stapling protects Escherichia coli from treatment with the broad-spectrum β-lactams ampicillin and carbenicillin. Chemical control of cell-wall structure in live bacteria can provide functional insights that are orthogonal to those obtained by genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia L Rivera
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Akbar Espaillat
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden
| | - Arjun K Aditham
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford ChEM-H (Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health), Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Peyton Shieh
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Chris Muriel-Mundo
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Justin Kim
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Felipe Cava
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden.
| | - M Sloan Siegrist
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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3
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Di Iorio D, Huskens J. Surface Modification with Control over Ligand Density for the Study of Multivalent Biological Systems. ChemistryOpen 2020; 9:53-66. [PMID: 31921546 PMCID: PMC6948118 DOI: 10.1002/open.201900290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In the study of multivalent interactions at interfaces, as occur for example at cell membranes, the density of the ligands or receptors displayed at the interface plays a pivotal role, affecting both the overall binding affinities and the valencies involved in the interactions. In order to control the ligand density at the interface, several approaches have been developed, and they concern the functionalization of a wide range of materials. Here, different methods employed in the modification of surfaces with controlled densities of ligands are being reviewed. Examples of such methods encompass the formation of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and polymeric layers on surfaces. Particular emphasis is given to the methods employed in the study of different types of multivalent biological interactions occurring at the functionalized surfaces and their working principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Di Iorio
- Molecular NanoFabrication group MESA+ Institute for NanotechnologyUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular NanoFabrication group MESA+ Institute for NanotechnologyUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe Netherlands
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Goldmann AS, Boase NRB, Michalek L, Blinco JP, Welle A, Barner-Kowollik C. Adaptable and Reprogrammable Surfaces. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1902665. [PMID: 31414512 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201902665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Establishing control over chemical reactions on interfaces is a key challenge in contemporary surface and materials science, in particular when introducing well-defined functionalities in a reversible fashion. Reprogrammable, adaptable and functional interfaces require sophisticated chemistries to precisely equip them with specific functionalities having tailored properties. In the last decade, reversible chemistries-both covalent and noncovalent-have paved the way to precision functionalize 2 or 3D structures that provide both spatial and temporal control. A critical literature assessment reveals that methodologies for writing and erasing substrates exist, yet are still far from reaching their full potential. It is thus critical to assess the current status and to identify avenues to overcome the existing limitations. Herein, the current state-of-the-art in the field of reversible chemistry on surfaces is surveyed, while concomitantly identifying the challenges-not only synthetic but also in current surface characterization methods. The potential within reversible chemistry on surfaces to function as true writeable memories devices is identified, and the latest developments in readout technologies are discussed. Finally, we explore how spatial and temporal control over reversible, light-induced chemistries has the potential to drive the future of functional interface design, especially when combined with powerful laser lithographic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja S Goldmann
- School of Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Nathan R B Boase
- School of Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Lukas Michalek
- School of Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - James P Blinco
- School of Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Alexander Welle
- Institute of Functional Interfaces, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christopher Barner-Kowollik
- School of Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
- Macromolecular Architectures, Institut für Technische Chemie und Polymerchemie, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Engesserstr. 18, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Balke I, Zeltins A. Use of plant viruses and virus-like particles for the creation of novel vaccines. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 145:119-129. [PMID: 30172923 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In recent decades, the development of plant virology and genetic engineering techniques has resulted in the construction of plant virus-based vaccines for protection against different infectious agents, cancers and autoimmune diseases in both humans and animals. Interaction studies between plant viruses and mammalian organisms have suggested that plant viruses and virus-like particles (VLPs) are safe and noninfectious to humans and animals. Plant viruses with introduced antigens are powerful vaccine components due to their strongly organized, repetitive spatial structure; they can elicit strong immune responses similar to those observed with infectious mammalian viruses. The analysis of published data demonstrated that at least 73 experimental vaccines, including 61 prophylactic and 12 therapeutic vaccines, have been constructed using plant viruses as a carrier structure for presentation of different antigens. This information clearly demonstrates that noninfectious viruses are also applicable as vaccine carriers. Moreover, several plant viruses have been used for platform development, and corresponding vaccines are currently being tested in human and veterinary clinical trials. This review therefore discusses the main principles of plant VLP vaccine construction, emphasizing the physical, chemical, genetic and immunological aspects. Results of the latest studies suggest that several plant virus-based vaccines will join the list of approved human and animal vaccines in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Balke
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1, Riga LV1067, Latvia
| | - Andris Zeltins
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1, Riga LV1067, Latvia.
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6
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Di Palma G, Kotowska AM, Hart LR, Scurr DJ, Rawson FJ, Tommasone S, Mendes PM. Reversible, High-Affinity Surface Capturing of Proteins Directed by Supramolecular Assembly. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:8937-8944. [PMID: 30726052 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b00927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The ability to design surfaces with reversible, high-affinity protein binding sites represents a significant step forward in the advancement of analytical methods for diverse biochemical and biomedical applications. Herein, we report a dynamic supramolecular strategy to directly assemble proteins on surfaces based on multivalent host-guest interactions. The host-guest interactions are achieved by one-step nanofabrication of a well-oriented β-cyclodextrin host-derived self-assembled monolayer on gold (β-CD-SAM) that forms specific inclusion complexes with hydrophobic amino acids located on the surface of the protein. Cytochrome c, insulin, α-chymotrypsin, and RNase A are used as model guest proteins. Surface plasmon resonance and static time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry studies demonstrate that all four proteins interact with the β-CD-SAM in a specific manner via the hydrophobic amino acids on the surface of the protein. The β-CD-SAMs bind the proteins with high nanomolar to single-digit micromolar dissociation constants ( KD). Importantly, while the proteins can be captured with high affinity, their release from the surface can be achieved under very mild conditions. Our results expose the great advantages of using a supramolecular approach for controlling protein immobilization, in which the strategy described herein provides unprecedented opportunities to create advanced bioanalytic and biosensor technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Di Palma
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham B15 2TT , U.K
| | - Anna M Kotowska
- School of Pharmacy , University of Nottingham , Nottingham NG7 2RD , U.K
| | - Lewis R Hart
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham B15 2TT , U.K
| | - David J Scurr
- School of Pharmacy , University of Nottingham , Nottingham NG7 2RD , U.K
| | - Frankie J Rawson
- School of Pharmacy , University of Nottingham , Nottingham NG7 2RD , U.K
| | - Stefano Tommasone
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham B15 2TT , U.K
| | - Paula M Mendes
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham B15 2TT , U.K
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7
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Pazos E, Novo P, Peinador C, Kaifer AE, García MD. Cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8])‐Based Supramolecular Switches. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 58:403-416. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201806575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Pazos
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spain
| | - Paula Novo
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spain
| | - Carlos Peinador
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spain
| | - Angel E. Kaifer
- Department of Chemistry University of Miami Coral Gables FL 33124 USA
| | - Marcos D. García
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spain
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8
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Pazos E, Novo P, Peinador C, Kaifer AE, García MD. Supramolekulare Schalter auf der Basis von Cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201806575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Pazos
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spanien
| | - Paula Novo
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spanien
| | - Carlos Peinador
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spanien
| | - Angel E. Kaifer
- Department of Chemistry University of Miami Coral Gables FL 33124 USA
| | - Marcos D. García
- Departamento de Química Facultade de Ciencias and Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Universidade da Coruña 15071, A Coruña Spanien
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9
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Wiemann M, Niebuhr R, Juan A, Cavatorta E, Ravoo BJ, Jonkheijm P. Photo-responsive Bioactive Surfaces Based on Cucurbit[8]uril-Mediated Host-Guest Interactions of Arylazopyrazoles. Chemistry 2017; 24:813-817. [PMID: 29283194 PMCID: PMC5814888 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201705426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A photoswitchable arylazopyrazole (AAP) derivative binds with cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]) and methylviologen (MV2+) to form a 1:1:1 heteroternary host–guest complex with a binding constant of Ka=2×103
m−1. The excellent photoswitching properties of AAP are preserved in the inclusion complex. Irradiation with light of a wavelength of 365 and 520 nm leads to quantitative E‐ to Z‐ isomerization and vice versa, respectively. Formation of the Z‐isomer leads to dissociation of the complex as evidenced using 1H NMR spectroscopy. AAP derivatives are then used to immobilize bioactive molecules and photorelease them on demand. When Arg‐Gly‐Asp‐AAP (AAP–RGD) peptides are attached to surface bound CB[8]/MV2+ complexes, cells adhere and can be released upon irradiation. The heteroternary host–guest system offers highly reversible binding properties due to efficient photoswitching and these properties are attractive for designing smart surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Wiemann
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute for, Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and of the MESA and Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca Niebuhr
- Organic Chemistry Institute and Center for Soft Nanoscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Alberto Juan
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute for, Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and of the MESA and Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Emanuela Cavatorta
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute for, Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and of the MESA and Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Bart Jan Ravoo
- Organic Chemistry Institute and Center for Soft Nanoscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Pascal Jonkheijm
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute for, Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and of the MESA and Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
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Cavatorta E, Voskuhl J, Wasserberg D, Brinkmann J, Huskens J, Jonkheijm P. Targeting protein-loaded CB[8]-mediated supramolecular nanocarriers to cells. RSC Adv 2017; 7:54341-54346. [PMID: 29568508 PMCID: PMC5819385 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra10980f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Supramolecular amphiphiles, consisting of ternary complexes of cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]), an alkylated paraquat derivative and a tetraethylene glycol-functionalized azobenzene, self-assemble into vesicles of about 200 nm in diameter. The outer surface of the vesicles was functionalized with cell-targeting ligands. These vesicles were employed for loading and delivery of proteins into cells. Supramolecular amphiphile-derived vesicles show great promise as nanocarriers of functional molecules to be transferred into cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Cavatorta
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands. ;
| | - Jens Voskuhl
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands. ;
| | - Dorothee Wasserberg
- Medical Cell BioPhysics Group, MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jenny Brinkmann
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands. ;
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands. ;
| | - Pascal Jonkheijm
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands. ;
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11
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Wiemann M, Jonkheijm P. Stimuli-Responsive Cucurbit[n]uril-Mediated Host-Guest Complexes on Surfaces. Isr J Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201700109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maike Wiemann
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and the Molecular Nanofabrication Group of the MESA Institute for Nanotechnology; University of Twente; P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede The Netherlands
| | - Pascal Jonkheijm
- Bioinspired Molecular Engineering Laboratory of the MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine and the Molecular Nanofabrication Group of the MESA Institute for Nanotechnology; University of Twente; P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede The Netherlands
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