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Tang B, Cao M, Yang Y, Guan J, Yao Y, Yi J, Dong J, Wang T, Wang L. Synthesis of KH550-Modified Hexagonal Boron Nitride Nanofillers for Improving Thermal Conductivity of Epoxy Nanocomposites. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061415. [PMID: 36987196 PMCID: PMC10058683 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, KH550 (γ-aminopropyl triethoxy silane)-modified hexagonal boron nitride (BN) nanofillers were synthesized through a one-step ball-milling route. Results show that the KH550-modified BN nanofillers synthesized by one-step ball-milling (BM@KH550-BN) exhibit excellent dispersion stability and a high yield of BN nanosheets. Using BM@KH550-BN as fillers for epoxy resin, the thermal conductivity of epoxy nanocomposites increased by 195.7% at 10 wt%, compared to neat epoxy resin. Simultaneously, the storage modulus and glass transition temperature (Tg) of the BM@KH550-BN/epoxy nanocomposite at 10 wt% also increased by 35.6% and 12.4 °C, respectively. The data calculated from the dynamical mechanical analysis show that the BM@KH550-BN nanofillers have a better filler effectiveness and a higher volume fraction of constrained region. The morphology of the fracture surface of the epoxy nanocomposites indicate that the BM@KH550-BN presents a uniform distribution in the epoxy matrix even at 10 wt%. This work guides the convenient preparation of high thermally conductive BN nanofillers, presenting a great application potential in the field of thermally conductive epoxy nanocomposites, which will promote the development of electronic packaging materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bolin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Utilization of Carbon Based Energy Resources, College of Chemistry, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Miao Cao
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Yaru Yang
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Jipeng Guan
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Yongbo Yao
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Jie Yi
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Jun Dong
- Nanotechnology Research Institute, School of Materials and Textile Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Tianle Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cutting Tools, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, China
- College of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
- Correspondence: (T.W.); (L.W.)
| | - Luxiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Utilization of Carbon Based Energy Resources, College of Chemistry, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China
- Correspondence: (T.W.); (L.W.)
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2
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Mechanical and Thermal Characterization on Synthesized Silane-Treated Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4) Reinforced 3D Printed Poly (Lactic Acid) Composite. J Inorg Organomet Polym Mater 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10904-023-02579-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
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3
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Tee ZY, Yeap SP, Hassan CS, Kiew PL. Nano and non-nano fillers in enhancing mechanical properties of epoxy resins: a brief review. POLYM-PLAST TECH MAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/25740881.2021.2015778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Yi Tee
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Built Environment, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Swee Pin Yeap
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Built Environment, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- UCSI-Cheras Low Carbon Innovation Hub Research Consortium, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Cik Suhana Hassan
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Built Environment, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Peck Loo Kiew
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Malaysia - Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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4
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Balguri PK, Thumu U, D G HS, Penki TR, Chilumala I. Manganese dioxide nanostructures reinforced epoxy nanocomposites: a study of mechanical properties. POLYM-PLAST TECH MAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/25740881.2021.1991953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Kumar Balguri
- Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad, India
| | - Udayabhaskararao Thumu
- Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Science, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Harris Samuel D G
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, India
| | | | - Indira Chilumala
- Computer Center, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad, India
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5
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Baghdadi YN, Sinno J, Bouhadir K, Harb M, Mustapha S, Patra D, Tehrani‐Bagha AR. The mechanical and thermal properties of graphitic carbon nitride (
g‐C
3
N
4
)‐based epoxy composites. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.51324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine N. Baghdadi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Jihad Sinno
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Kamal Bouhadir
- Department of Chemistry American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Mohammad Harb
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Samir Mustapha
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Digambara Patra
- Department of Chemistry American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Ali R. Tehrani‐Bagha
- B. & W. Bassatne Department of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Energy American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
- School of Chemical Engineering Alto University Espoo Finland
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6
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Madathinal Kunjappan A, Reghunadhan A, Ramachandran AA, Mathew L, Padmanabhan M, Laroze D, Thomas S. Discussion on degree of entanglement, chain confinement, and reinforcement efficiency factor of
PTT
/
PE
blend nanocomposite embedded with
MWCNTs. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aswathi Madathinal Kunjappan
- International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
| | - Arunima Reghunadhan
- International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
- Postgraduate Department of Chemistry MSM College Kayamkulam India
| | - Ajitha A. Ramachandran
- International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
| | - Lovely Mathew
- International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
- Viswajyothi College of Engineering and Technology Muvattupuzha India
| | - Moothetty Padmanabhan
- Department of Chemistry Amritha Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amrithapuri Campus Kollam India
- School of Chemical Sciences Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
| | - David Laroze
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, CEDENNA Universidad de Tarapacá Arica Chile
| | - Sabu Thomas
- International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
- School of Chemical Sciences Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam India
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7
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Baghdadi YN, Youssef L, Bouhadir K, Harb M, Mustapha S, Patra D, Tehrani‐Bagha AR. Thermal and mechanical properties of epoxy resin reinforced with modified iron oxide nanoparticles. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.50533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine N. Baghdadi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Lucia Youssef
- Department of Chemistry American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Kamal Bouhadir
- Department of Chemistry American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Mohammad Harb
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Samir Mustapha
- Department of Mechanical Engineering American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Digambara Patra
- Department of Chemistry American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Ali Reza Tehrani‐Bagha
- B. & W. Bassatne Department of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Energy American University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
- School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University Espoo‐Finland
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8
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Hu J, Wang C, Dai J, Teng N, Wang S, Zhang L, Jiang Y, Liu X. Epoxy resin with excellent ultraviolet resistance and mechanical properties derived from renewable camphoric acid. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jingyuan Hu
- School of Textile Science and Engineering Tiangong University Tianjin P. R. China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
| | - Chunhong Wang
- School of Textile Science and Engineering Tiangong University Tianjin P. R. China
| | - Jinyue Dai
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
| | - Na Teng
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing P. R. China
| | - Shuaipeng Wang
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
| | - Liyue Zhang
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
| | - Yaming Jiang
- School of Textile Science and Engineering Tiangong University Tianjin P. R. China
| | - Xiaoqing Liu
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences Ningbo P. R. China
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9
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A.V AB, Vijayan P P, Thomas S, Parameswaranpillai J, Puglia D, Siengchin S, L A, Manohar A. Fabrication of water-resistant epoxy nanocomposite with improved dynamic mechanical properties and balanced thermal and dimensional stability: Study on dual role of graphene oxide nanosheets and barium oxide microparticles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2021.126405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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10
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A. R A, S SB, Shivaramu PD. Spectral characterization of morphological structure of organomodified montmorillonite clay-based epoxy nanocomposite. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF POLYMER ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/1023666x.2021.1908031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annappa A. R
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University BDT College of Engineering, Davangere, India
| | - S. Basavarajappa S
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University BDT College of Engineering, Davangere, India
| | - Prasanna D. Shivaramu
- Department of Applied Sciences, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Center for Postgraduate Studies, Muddenahalli, India
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11
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Baghdadi YN, Youssef L, Bouhadir K, Harb M, Mustapha S, Patra D, Tehrani‐Bagha AR. The effects of modified zinc oxide nanoparticles on the mechanical/thermal properties of epoxy resin. J Appl Polym Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/app.49330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine N. Baghdadi
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Lucia Youssef
- Department of ChemistryAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Kamal Bouhadir
- Department of ChemistryAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Mohammad Harb
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Samir Mustapha
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Digambara Patra
- Department of ChemistryAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
| | - Ali R. Tehrani‐Bagha
- Bahaa and Walid Bassatne Department of Chemical Engineering and Advanced EnergyAmerican University of Beirut Beirut Lebanon
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12
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Surendran A, Joy J, Parameswaranpillai J, Anas S, Thomas S. An overview of viscoelastic phase separation in epoxy based blends. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:3363-3377. [PMID: 32215406 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm02361e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The viscoelastic effects during reaction induced phase separation play an important role in toughening epoxy-based blends. The large difference in molecular weight/glass transition temperature between the blend components before the curing reaction results in dynamic asymmetry, causing viscoelastic effects during phase separation accompanying the curing reaction. This review will focus on the key factors responsible for viscoelastic phase separation in epoxy-based blends and hybrid nanocomposites. Time-resolved characterization techniques such as rheometry, small angle laser light scattering, optical microscopy etc., are mainly used for monitoring the viscoelastic effects during phase separation. Incorporation of nanofillers in epoxy thermoplastic blends enhances the viscoelastic phase separation due to the increase in dynamic asymmetry. Different theoretical models are identified for the determination of processing parameters such as temperature, viscosity, phase domain size, and other parameters during the viscoelastic phase separation process. The effect of viscoelastic phase separation has a very strong influence on the domain parameters of the blends and thereby on the ultimate properties and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Surendran
- International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala 686560, India.
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13
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Aslam M, Kalyar MA, Raza ZA. Fabrication of nano-CuO-loaded PVA composite films with enhanced optomechanical properties. Polym Bull (Berl) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-020-03173-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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14
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Joy J, George E, Thomas S, Anas S. Effect of filler loading on polymer chain confinement and thermomechanical properties of epoxy/boron nitride (h-BN) nanocomposites. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj05834f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This article examines the effect of the addition of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) nanopowder on the polymer chain confinement, thermal, morphological and mechanical properties of the epoxy system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jomon Joy
- School of Chemical Sciences
- Mahatma Gandhi University
- Kottayam
- India
| | - Elssa George
- School of Chemical Sciences
- Mahatma Gandhi University
- Kottayam
- India
| | - Sabu Thomas
- School of Chemical Sciences
- Mahatma Gandhi University
- Kottayam
- India
- International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
| | - Saithalavi Anas
- School of Chemical Sciences
- Mahatma Gandhi University
- Kottayam
- India
- Advanced Molecular Materials Research Centre
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15
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Ren S, Meng L, Ma W, Lin S, Yang W, Lan J, Jia X, Cai Q, Yang X. Enhancing overall properties of epoxy-based composites using polydopamine-coated edge-carboxylated graphene prepared via one-step high-pressure ball milling. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:21726-21737. [PMID: 31372612 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp03014j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Graphene (GN) nanofillers have been widely used to enhance the overall performance of polymer composites due to their various superior properties, which strongly rely on the uniform dispersion and strong interfacial bonding of GN with high-quality polymer matrices. In the present study, the strengthening and functional effects of polydopamine-coated edge-carboxylated graphene (p-ECG) on the mechanical, moisture-barrier and electromagnetic properties of epoxy (EP)-based composites were systematically evaluated. p-ECG was successfully prepared via one-step high-pressure ball milling through the edge-selective functionalization and exfoliation of pristine graphite in the presence of dry ice, followed by synchronous reduction and coating via the mild oxidative polymerization of mussel-inspired dopamine. p-ECG showed prominent advantages of a small sheet size, excellent dispersibility and high chemical reactivity in the EP matrix. Obvious enhancements were achieved in the tensile and flexural properties and moisture-barrier performance of EP composites as well as the interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) and transverse fiber bundle tensile (TFBT) strength of carbon fiber (CF)/EP composites, which confirmed the excellent dispersion and chemically strengthened interfacial bonding of p-ECG in the EP matrix. More importantly, p-ECG introduced onto the surface of desized CF led to significant enhancement in the electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding capability of CF/EP composites, which was primarily ascribed to the polarization relaxation effect induced by the defects and functional groups in p-ECG as well as the increase in electrical conductivity derived from the "bridging effect" of p-ECG. Specifically, with p-ECG content of 0.5 wt%, the increments in tensile strength, TFBT strength, shielding effectiveness (total, SET) and shielding effectiveness (reflection loss, SER) were as high as 33.3, 34.3, 31.3 and 71.0%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujie Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
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16
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Yu S, Lee W, Seo B, Lim CS. Synthesis of Benzene Tetracarboxamide Polyamine and Its Effect on Epoxy Resin Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E782. [PMID: 30960707 PMCID: PMC6403838 DOI: 10.3390/polym10070782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Epoxy resins have found various industrial applications in high-performance thermosetting resins, high-performance composites, electronic-packaging materials, adhesives, protective coatings, etc., due to their outstanding performance, including high toughness, high-temperature performance, chemical and environmental resistance, versatile processability and adhesive properties. However, cured epoxy resins are very brittle, which limits their applications. In this work, we attempted to enhance the toughness of cured epoxy resins by introducing benzene tetracarboxamide polyamine (BTCP), synthesized from pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) and diamines in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) solvent. During this reaction, increased viscosity and formation of amic acid could be confirmed. The chemical reactions were monitored and evidenced using ¹H-NMR spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, water gel-phase chromatography (GPC) analysis, amine value determination and acid value determination. We also studied the effect of additives on thermomechanical properties using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamical mechanical analysis (DMA), thermomechanical analysis (TMA) and by measuring mechanical properties. The BTCP-containing epoxy resin exhibited high mechanical strength and adhesion strength proportional to the amount of BTCP. Furthermore, field-emission scanning electron microscopy images were obtained for examining the cross-sectional morphology changes of the epoxy resin specimens with varying amounts of BTCP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoyoon Yu
- Advanced Industrial Chemistry Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 45, Jongga-ro, Yugok dong, Jung-gu, Ulsan 44412, Korea.
| | - Wonjoo Lee
- Advanced Industrial Chemistry Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 45, Jongga-ro, Yugok dong, Jung-gu, Ulsan 44412, Korea.
| | - Bongkuk Seo
- Advanced Industrial Chemistry Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 45, Jongga-ro, Yugok dong, Jung-gu, Ulsan 44412, Korea.
| | - Chung-Sun Lim
- Advanced Industrial Chemistry Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 45, Jongga-ro, Yugok dong, Jung-gu, Ulsan 44412, Korea.
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17
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Kumar SK, Benicewicz BC, Vaia RA, Winey KI. 50th Anniversary Perspective: Are Polymer Nanocomposites Practical for Applications? Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b02330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 389] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sanat K. Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Brian C. Benicewicz
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Richard A. Vaia
- Materials and Manufacturing
Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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