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Pitters J, Croshaw J, Achal R, Livadaru L, Ng S, Lupoiu R, Chutora T, Huff T, Walus K, Wolkow RA. Atomically Precise Manufacturing of Silicon Electronics. ACS NANO 2024; 18:6766-6816. [PMID: 38376086 PMCID: PMC10919096 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c10412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Atomically precise manufacturing (APM) is a key technique that involves the direct control of atoms in order to manufacture products or components of products. It has been developed most successfully using scanning probe methods and has received particular attention for developing atom scale electronics with a focus on silicon-based systems. This review captures the development of silicon atom-based electronics and is divided into several sections that will cover characterization and atom manipulation of silicon surfaces with scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy, development of silicon dangling bonds as atomic quantum dots, creation of atom scale devices, and the wiring and packaging of those circuits. The review will also cover the advance of silicon dangling bond logic design and the progress of silicon quantum atomic designer (SiQAD) simulators. Finally, an outlook of APM and silicon atom electronics will be provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Pitters
- Nanotechnology
Research Centre, National Research Council
of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Roshan Achal
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Lucian Livadaru
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Samuel Ng
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Robert Lupoiu
- School
of Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Taras Chutora
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Taleana Huff
- Canadian
Bank Note Company, Ottawa, Ontario K1Z 1A1, Canada
| | - Konrad Walus
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Robert A. Wolkow
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
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2
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Wyrick J, Wang X, Namboodiri P, Kashid RV, Fei F, Fox J, Silver R. Enhanced Atomic Precision Fabrication by Adsorption of Phosphine into Engineered Dangling Bonds on H-Si Using STM and DFT. ACS NANO 2022; 16:19114-19123. [PMID: 36317737 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c08162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The doping of Si using the scanning probe hydrogen depassivation lithography technique has been shown to enable placing and positioning small numbers of P atoms with nanometer accuracy. Several groups have now used this capability to build devices that exhibit desired quantum behavior determined by their atomistic details. What remains elusive, however, is the ability to control the precise number of atoms placed at a chosen site with 100% yield, thereby limiting the complexity and degree of perfection achievable. As an important step toward precise control of dopant number, we explore the adsorption of the P precursor molecule, phosphine, into atomically perfect dangling bond patches of intentionally varied size consisting of three adjacent Si dimers along a dimer row, two adjacent dimers, and one single dimer. Using low temperature scanning tunneling microscopy, we identify the adsorption products by generating and comparing to a catalog of simulated images, explore atomic manipulation after adsorption in select cases, and follow up with incorporation of P into the substrate. For one-dimer patches, we demonstrate that manipulation of the adsorbed species leads to single P incorporation in 12 out of 12 attempts. Based on the observations made in this study, we propose this one-dimer patch method as a robust approach that can be used to fabricate devices where it is ensured that each site of interest has exactly one P atom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Wyrick
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Xiqiao Wang
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Joint Quantum Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Pradeep Namboodiri
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Ranjit Vilas Kashid
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Fan Fei
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Joseph Fox
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Richard Silver
- Atom Scale Device Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
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Zuzak R, Szymonski M, Godlewski S. Extended iron phthalocyanine islands self-assembled on a Ge(001):H surface. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 12:232-241. [PMID: 33747697 PMCID: PMC7940817 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.12.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembly of iron(II) phthalocyanine (FePc) molecules on a Ge(001):H surface results in monolayer islands extending over hundreds of nanometers and comprising upright-oriented entities. Scanning tunneling spectroscopy reveals a transport gap of 2.70 eV in agreement with other reports regarding isolated FePc molecules. Detailed analysis of single FePc molecules trapped at surface defects indicates that the molecules stay intact upon adsorption and can be manipulated away from surface defects onto a perfectly hydrogenated surface. This allows for their isolation from the germanium surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafal Zuzak
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy, and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Kraków, Poland
| | - Marek Szymonski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy, and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Kraków, Poland
| | - Szymon Godlewski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy, and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Kraków, Poland
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Croshaw J, Huff T, Rashidi M, Wood J, Lloyd E, Pitters J, Wolkow RA. Ionic charge distributions in silicon atomic surface wires. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:3237-3245. [PMID: 33533379 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr08295c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Using a non-contact atomic force microscope (nc-AFM), we examine continuous dangling bond (DB) wire structures patterned on the hydrogen terminated silicon (100)-2 × 1 surface. By probing the DB structures at varying energies, we identify the formation of previously unobserved ionic charge distributions which are correlated to the net charge of DB wires and their predicted degrees of freedom in lattice distortions. Performing spectroscopic analysis, we identify higher energy configurations corresponding to alternative lattice distortions as well as tip-induced charging effects. By varying the length and orientation of these DB structures, we further highlight key features in the formation of these ionic surface phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J1, Canada. and Quantum Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Taleana Huff
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Mohammad Rashidi
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J1, Canada.
| | - John Wood
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J1, Canada.
| | - Erika Lloyd
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J1, Canada.
| | - Jason Pitters
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Robert A Wolkow
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J1, Canada. and Quantum Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada and Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
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Croshaw J, Dienel T, Huff T, Wolkow R. Atomic defect classification of the H-Si(100) surface through multi-mode scanning probe microscopy. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 11:1346-1360. [PMID: 32974113 PMCID: PMC7492692 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.11.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) and non-contact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) allows enhanced extraction and correlation of properties not readily available via a single imaging mode. We demonstrate this through the characterization and classification of several commonly found defects of the hydrogen-terminated silicon (100)-2 × 1 surface (H-Si(100)-2 × 1) by using six unique imaging modes. The H-Si surface was chosen as it provides a promising platform for the development of atom scale devices, with recent work showing their creation through precise desorption or placement of surface hydrogen atoms. While samples with relatively large areas of the H-Si surface are routinely created using an in situ methodology, surface defects are inevitably formed reducing the area available for patterning. By probing the surface using the different interactivity afforded by either hydrogen- or silicon-terminated tips, we are able to extract new insights regarding the atomic and electronic structure of these defects. This allows for the confirmation of literature assignments of several commonly found defects, as well as proposed classifications of previously unreported and unassigned defects. By combining insights from multiple imaging modes, better understanding of their successes and shortcomings in identifying defect structures and origins is achieved. With this, we take the first steps toward enabling the creation of superior H-Si surfaces through an improved understanding of surface defects, ultimately leading to more consistent and reliable fabrication of atom scale devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Thomas Dienel
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, USA
| | - Taleana Huff
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Robert Wolkow
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
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Achal R, Rashidi M, Croshaw J, Huff TR, Wolkow RA. Detecting and Directing Single Molecule Binding Events on H-Si(100) with Application to Ultradense Data Storage. ACS NANO 2020; 14:2947-2955. [PMID: 31773956 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b07637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many diverse material systems are being explored to enable smaller, more capable and energy efficient devices. These bottom up approaches for atomic and molecular electronics, quantum computation, and data storage all rely on a well-developed understanding of materials at the atomic scale. Here, we report a versatile scanning tunneling microscope (STM) charge characterization technique, which reduces the influence of the typically perturbative STM tip field, to develop this understanding even further. Using this technique, we can now observe single molecule binding events to atomically defined reactive sites (fabricated on a hydrogen-terminated silicon surface) through electronic detection. We then developed a simplified error correction tool for automated hydrogen lithography, quickly directing molecular hydrogen binding events using these sites to precisely repassivate surface dangling bonds (without the use of a scanned probe). We additionally incorporated this molecular repassivation technique as the primary rewriting mechanism in ultradense atomic data storage designs (0.88 petabits per in2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Achal
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Mohammad Rashidi
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Taleana R Huff
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Robert A Wolkow
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
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Wyrick J, Wang X, Namboodiri P, Schmucker SW, Kashid RV, Silver RM. Atom-by-Atom Construction of a Cyclic Artificial Molecule in Silicon. NANO LETTERS 2018; 18:7502-7508. [PMID: 30428677 PMCID: PMC6505699 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen atoms on a silicon surface, H-Si (100), behave as a resist that can be patterned with perfect atomic precision using a scanning tunneling microscope. When a hydrogen atom is removed in this manner, the underlying silicon presents a chemically active site, commonly referred to as a dangling bond. It has been predicted that individual dangling bonds function as artificial atoms, which, if grouped together, can form designer molecules on the H-Si (100) surface. Here, we present an artificial ring structure molecule spanning three dimer rows, constructed from dangling bonds, and verified by spectroscopic measurement of its molecular orbitals. We found that removing 8 hydrogen atoms resulted in a molecular analog to 1,4-disilylene-hexasilabenzene (Si8H8). Scanning tunneling spectroscopic measurements reveal molecular π and π* orbitals that agree with those expected for the same molecule in a vacuum; this is validated by density functional theory calculations of the dangling bond system on a silicon slab that show direct links both to the experimental results and to calculations for the isolated molecule. We believe the unique electronic structure of artificial molecules constructed in this manner can be engineered to enable future molecule-based electronics, surface catalytic functionality, and templating for subsequent site-selective deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Wyrick
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Xiqiao Wang
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Chemical Physics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Pradeep Namboodiri
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Scott W. Schmucker
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Joint Quantum Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Ranjit V. Kashid
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Richard M. Silver
- Nanoscale Device Characterization Division, National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
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8
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Godlewski S, Engelund M, Peña D, Zuzak R, Kawai H, Kolmer M, Caeiro J, Guitián E, Vollhardt KPC, Sánchez-Portal D, Szymonski M, Pérez D. Site-selective reversible Diels–Alder reaction between a biphenylene-based polyarene and a semiconductor surface. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:11037-11046. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cp01094c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A multidisciplinary study reveals the chemistry of a polycyclic conjugated molecule on a Ge(001):H surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Godlewski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials
- NANOSAM
- Faculty of Physics
- Astronomy and Applied Computer Science
- Jagiellonian University
| | - Mads Engelund
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC-UPV/EHU and DIPC
- Donostia-San Sebastián
- Spain
| | - Diego Peña
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) and Departamento de Química Orgánica
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela
- 15782 Santiago de Compostela
- Spain
| | - Rafał Zuzak
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials
- NANOSAM
- Faculty of Physics
- Astronomy and Applied Computer Science
- Jagiellonian University
| | - Hiroyo Kawai
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- 138634 Singapore
| | - Marek Kolmer
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials
- NANOSAM
- Faculty of Physics
- Astronomy and Applied Computer Science
- Jagiellonian University
| | - Jorge Caeiro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) and Departamento de Química Orgánica
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela
- 15782 Santiago de Compostela
- Spain
| | - Enrique Guitián
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) and Departamento de Química Orgánica
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela
- 15782 Santiago de Compostela
- Spain
| | | | | | - Marek Szymonski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials
- NANOSAM
- Faculty of Physics
- Astronomy and Applied Computer Science
- Jagiellonian University
| | - Dolores Pérez
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) and Departamento de Química Orgánica
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela
- 15782 Santiago de Compostela
- Spain
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9
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Kolmer M, Olszowski P, Zuzak R, Godlewski S, Joachim C, Szymonski M. Two-probe STM experiments at the atomic level. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2017; 29:444004. [PMID: 28869213 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/aa8a05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Direct characterization of planar atomic or molecular scale devices and circuits on a supporting surface by multi-probe measurements requires unprecedented stability of single atom contacts and manipulation of scanning probes over large, nanometer scale area with atomic precision. In this work, we describe the full methodology behind atomically defined two-probe scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) experiments performed on a model system: dangling bond dimer wire supported on a hydrogenated germanium (0 0 1) surface. We show that 70 nm long atomic wire can be simultaneously approached by two independent STM scanners with exact probe to probe distance reaching down to 30 nm. This allows direct wire characterization by two-probe I-V characteristics at distances below 50 nm. Our technical results presented in this work open a new area for multi-probe research, which can be now performed with precision so far accessible only by single-probe scanning probe microscopy (SPM) experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Kolmer
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Jagiellonian University, Lojasiewicza 11, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
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10
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Godlewski S, Kawai H, Kolmer M, Zuzak R, Echavarren AM, Joachim C, Szymonski M, Saeys M. Single-Molecule Rotational Switch on a Dangling Bond Dimer Bearing. ACS NANO 2016; 10:8499-8507. [PMID: 27504525 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b03590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
One of the key challenges in the construction of atomic-scale circuits and molecular machines is to design molecular rotors and switches by controlling the linear or rotational movement of a molecule while preserving its intrinsic electronic properties. Here, we demonstrate both the continuous rotational switching and the controlled step-by-step single switching of a trinaphthylene molecule adsorbed on a dangling bond dimer created on a hydrogen-passivated Ge(001):H surface. The molecular switch is on-surface assembled when the covalent bonds between the molecule and the dangling bond dimer are controllably broken, and the molecule is attached to the dimer by long-range van der Waals interactions. In this configuration, the molecule retains its intrinsic electronic properties, as confirmed by combined scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy (STM/STS) measurements, density functional theory calculations, and advanced STM image calculations. Continuous switching of the molecule is initiated by vibronic excitations when the electrons are tunneling through the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital state of the molecule. The switching path is a combination of a sliding and rotation motion over the dangling bond dimer pivot. By carefully selecting the STM conditions, control over discrete single switching events is also achieved. Combined with the ability to create dangling bond dimers with atomic precision, the controlled rotational molecular switch is expected to be a crucial building block for more complex surface atomic-scale devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Godlewski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University , Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Hiroyo Kawai
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering , 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634
| | - Marek Kolmer
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University , Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Rafał Zuzak
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University , Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Antonio M Echavarren
- Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ) , Av. Països Catalans 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Christian Joachim
- Nanosciences Group & MANA Satellite, CEMES-CNRS, 29 rue Jeanne Marvig, F-31055 Toulouse, France & International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) , 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Marek Szymonski
- Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University , Łojasiewicza 11, PL 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Mark Saeys
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology, Ghent University , Technologiepark 914, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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