Innovative Encapsulation Strategies for Food, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Applications

Bioactive metabolites obtained from fruits and vegetables as well as many drugs have various capacities to prevent or treat various ailments. Nevertheless, their efficiency, in vivo, encounter many challenges resulting in lower efficacy as well as different side effects when high doses are used resulting in many challenges for their application. Indeed, demand for effective treatments with no or less unfavorable side effects is rising. Delivering active molecules to a particular site of action within the human body is an example of targeted therapy which remains a challenging field. Developments of nanotechnology and polymer science have great promise for meeting the growing demands of efficient options. Encapsulation of active ingredients in nano-delivery systems has become as a vitally tool for protecting the integrity of critical biochemicals, improving their delivery, enabling their controlled release and maintaining their biological features. Here, we examine a wide range of nano-delivery techniques, such as niosomes, polymeric/solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and nano-emulsions. The advantages of encapsulation in targeted, synergistic, and supportive therapies are emphasized, along with current progress in its application. Additionally, a revised collection of studies was given, focusing on improving the effectiveness of anticancer medications and addressing the problem of antimicrobial resistance. To sum up, this paper conducted a thorough analysis to determine the efficacy of encapsulation technology in the field of drug discovery and development.

Cyclodextrins and their potential applications for delivering vitamins, iron, and iodine for improving micronutrient status

Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been investigated as potential biopolymeric carriers that can form inclusion complexes with numerous bioactive ingredients. The inclusion of micronutrients (e.g. vitamins or minerals) into cyclodextrins can enhance their solubility and provide oxidative or thermal stability. It also enables the formulation of products with extended shelf-life. The designed delivery systems with CDs and their inclusion complexes including electrospun nanofibers, emulsions, liposomes, and hydrogels, show potential in enhancing the solubility and oxidative stability of micronutrients while enabling their controlled and sustained release in applications including food packaging, fortified foods and dietary supplements. Nano or micrometer-sized delivery systems capable of controlling burst release and permeation, or moderating skin hydration have been reported, which can facilitate the formulation of several personal and skin care products for topical or transdermal delivery of micronutrients. This review highlights recent developments in the application of CDs for the delivery of micronutrients, i.e. vitamins, iron, and iodine, which play key roles in the human body, emphasizing their existing and potential applications in the food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmeceuticals industries.

Inclusion complex of quercetin with sulfobutylether β-cyclodextrin: preparation, characterization, antioxidant and antibacterial activities and the inclusion mechanism

Quercetin (QCT) has a variety of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, anticardiovascular and antiaging effects. However, its poor water solubility, stability and bioavailability limit its applications. The special structure of cyclodextrins and their derivatives with a hydrophobic inner cavity and hydrophilic outer wall can load a variety of hydrophobic drugs of a suitable size and shape, thereby improving the stability and solubility of these molecules. In this study, an inclusion complex of quercetin and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin was prepared. It was characterized via FT-IR, UV, 1H NMR, XRD, DSC, and SEM analysis, which revealed the successful formation of the inclusion complex. In vitro biological activity estimations were carried out and the results indicated that the inclusion complex displayed higher antioxidative and antibacterial properties compared with free QCT. In addition, the mechanisms of inclusion were explored using 1H NMR analysis and docking calculations, thus providing a theoretical basis for obtaining an inclusion complex.

Zein-Based Nanoparticles as Active Platforms for Sustainable Applications: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Nanomaterials, due to their unique structural and functional features, are widely investigated for potential applications in a wide range of industrial sectors. In this context, protein-based nanoparticles, given proteins' abundance, non-toxicity, and stability, offer a promising and sustainable methodology for encapsulation and protection, and can be used in engineered nanocarriers that are capable of releasing active compounds on demand. Zein is a plant-based protein extracted from corn, and it is biocompatible, biodegradable, and amphiphilic. Several approaches and technologies are currently involved in zein-based nanoparticle preparation, such as antisolvent precipitation, spray drying, supercritical processes, coacervation, and emulsion procedures. Thanks to their peculiar characteristics, zein-based nanoparticles are widely used as nanocarriers of active compounds in targeted application fields such as drug delivery, bioimaging, or soft tissue engineering, as reported by others. The main goal of this review is to investigate the use of zein-based nanocarriers for different advanced applications including food/food packaging, cosmetics, and agriculture, which are attracting researchers' efforts, and to exploit the future potential development of zein NPs in the field of cultural heritage, which is still relatively unexplored. Moreover, the presented overview focuses on several preparation methods (i.e., antisolvent processes, spry drying), correlating the different analyzed methodologies to NPs' structural and functional properties and their capability to act as carriers of bioactive compounds, both to preserve their activity and to tune their release in specific working conditions.

Wall Materials for Encapsulating Bioactive Compounds via Spray-Drying: A Review

Spray-drying is a continuous encapsulation method that effectively preserves, stabilizes, and retards the degradation of bioactive compounds by encapsulating them within a wall material. The resulting capsules exhibit diverse characteristics influenced by factors such as operating conditions (e.g., air temperature and feed rate) and the interactions between the bioactive compounds and the wall material. This review aims to compile recent research (within the past 5 years) on spray-drying for bioactive compound encapsulation, emphasizing the significance of wall materials in spray-drying and their impact on encapsulation yield, efficiency, and capsule morphology.

Recent advances in encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins using polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids: A review on delivery systems, formulation, and industrial applications

Fat-soluble vitamins (FSVs) offer a range of beneficial properties as important nutrients in human nutrition. However, the high susceptibility to environmental conditions such as high temperature, light, and oxygen leads to the degradation of these compounds. This review highlights the different formulations underlying the encapsulation of FSVs in biopolymer (polysaccharide and protein) and lipid-based micro or nanocarriers for potential applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. In particular, the function of these carrier systems in terms of encapsulation efficiency, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility is critically discussed. Recently, tremendous attention has been paid to encapsulating FSVs in commercial applications. According to the chemical nature of the active compound, the vigilant selection of delivery formulation, method of encapsulation, and final application (type of food) are the key important factors to be considered in the encapsulation of FSVs to ensure a high loading capacity, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility. Future studies are recommended on the effect of different vitamin types and micro and nano encapsulate sizes on bioaccessibility and biocompatibility through in vitro/in vivo studies. Moreover, the toxicity and safety evaluation of encapsulated FSVs in human health should be evaluated before commercial application in food and pharmaceuticals.

Emerging plant proteins as nanocarriers of bioactive compounds

The high prevalence of chronic illnesses, including cancer, diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases has become a growing concern for modern society. Recently, various bioactive compounds (bioactives) are shown to have a diversity of health-beneficial impacts on a wide range of disorders. But the application of these bioactives in food and pharmaceutical formulations is limited due to their poor water solubility and low bioaccessibility/bioavailability. Plant proteins are green alternatives for designing biopolymeric nanoparticles as appropriate nanocarriers thanks to their amphiphilic nature compatible with many bioactives and unique functional properties. Recently, emerging plant proteins (EPPs) are employed as nanocarriers for protection and targeted delivery of bioactives and also improving their stability and shelf-life. EPPs could enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of bioactives by different types of delivery systems. In addition, the use of EPPs in combination with other biopolymers like polysaccharides was found to make a favorable wall material for food bioactives. This review article covers the various sources and importance of EPPs along with different encapsulation techniques of bioactives. Characterization of EPPs for encapsulation is also investigated. Furthermore, the focus is on the application of EPPs as nanocarriers for food bioactives.

Cyclodextrins inclusion complex: Preparation methods, analytical techniques and food industry applications

This review offers a vision of the chemical behaviour of natural ingredients, synthetic drugs and other related compounds complexed using cyclodextrins. The review takes care of different sections related to i) the inclusion complexes formation with cyclodextrins, ii) the determination of the inclusion formation constant, iii) the most used methods to prepare host inclusion in the non-polar cavity of cyclodextrins and iv) the analytical techniques to evidence host inclusion. The review provides different literature that shows the application of cyclodextrins to improve physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of food compounds including solubility, stability and their elimination/masking. Moreover, the review also offers examples of commercial food/supplement products of cyclodextrins to indicate that cyclodextrins can be used to generate biotechnological substances with innovative properties and improve the development of food products.

Spray drying encapsulation of bioactive compounds within protein-based carriers; different options and applications

Spray-drying is known as a common and economical technique for the encapsulation of various nutrients and bioactive compounds. However, shear and thermal tensions during atomization and dehydration, as well as physicochemical instability during storage, result in a loss of these compounds. As a solution, bioactives are stabilized into different carriers, among which proteins and peptides are of particular importance due to their functional properties, surface activity, and film/shell formability around particles. Given the importance of stabilization of bioactive compounds during spray drying, this paper focuses on the role of composition and type of carriers, as well as the characteristics and efficiency of various protein-based carriers in the encapsulation and maintaining of physicochemical, structural, and functional properties, along with biological activity of bioactive compounds (e.g., oleoresins, sterols, polyphenols, anthocyanins, carotenoids, probiotics, and peptides), and nutrients (e.g., vitamins, fatty acids and minerals) alone or in combination with other biopolymers.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Volatile Compounds Indicate Kernel and Oil Oxidation

Kernel oxidation susceptibility and pellicle darkening are among the biggest concerns regarding walnut quality. Monitoring oxidation is crucial to preserve quality from production to consumption. Chemical oxidation parameters (peroxide value and UV absorbances), fatty acid profile, tocopherols, phenols, and volatiles in ‘Chandler’ and ‘Howard’ kernels were studied at different time points during 28 weeks of storage to evaluate potential oxidation markers. During storage, peroxide value, UV absorbances, and volatiles concentration increased; oxidative stability, phenols, and tocopherols decreased, while fatty acid profile was unaffected. ‘Chandler’ had a lower peroxide value, K₂₃₂, and K₂₆₈; and higher kernel and oil oxidative stability compared to ‘Howard’. Phenols and tocopherols decreased 1.2-fold in ‘Chandler’ and 1.3-fold in ‘Howard’. Using multivariate analysis, samples were discriminated in three groups according with their oxidative levels. Increases of volatiles in oil and kernel were associated with higher oxidative levels. Pentanal, 2-methylpropanal, hexanal, (E)-2-pentenal, 3-octanone, octanal, (Z)-2-penten-1-ol, hexanol, (E)-2-octenal, 1-octen-3-ol, benzaldehyde, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, and hexanoic acid in kernels were adequate at distinguishing oxidation levels and as oxidative markers in walnuts. Kernel volatiles is a useful measurement for walnut oxidation during storage without any prior fat extraction.

The characterization and biological activities of synthetic N, O-selenized chitosan derivatives

Synthetic selenium polysaccharides with potential bioactivity have drawn great interest due to the SeO bonds existing in the structure. Herein, N, O-selenized N-(2-carboxyethyl) chitosan (sNCCS) was synthesized through carboxyethylation and selenylation. Various characterizations were performed to identify the structure of sNCCS, indicating that SeO bonds were formed both at the C-6 hydroxyl groups and the introduced C-2 carboxyethyl groups. The highest yield and selenium content of all sNCCS reached 84.5% and 1.553 mg/g, respectively. In vitro evaluation exhibited that sNCCS has excellent bile acid binding capacity, which was 1.63, 2.00, and 2.55-fold higher than that of N-(2-carboxyethyl) chitosan (NCCS). Moreover, it was found that higher selenium content could significantly enhance the antioxidant properties of sNCCS. Importantly, no obvious cytotoxic effect had been observed on Caco-2 cells. Taken together, sNCCS with desirable biological activity and non-cytotoxicity might be considered as an effective ingredient in the fields of food or medicine.

A new design for obtaining of white zein micro- and nanoparticles powder: antisolvent-dialysis method

The objective of this work was propose antisolvent-dialysis as a new, easy, one-step and reproducible method for obtaining white zein micro- and nanoparticles powder. Firstly, the study by SEM of white zein powder predicted micro- and nanoparticles with spherical morphology and average diameters of 243.2 ± 94.5 nm for nanoparticles and 0.74 ± 0.2 μm for microparticles. UV-Vis predicted lower absorbance of 250-500 nm for white zein powder compared to commercial yellow zein powder. FT-IR showed shifting of the main bands to the right, due to changes in particle-shaped microstructure that acquires white zein powder compared to yellow zein powder. In TGA white zein powder showed a decomposition range from 214 to 400 °C, while yellow zein powder from 240 to 400 °C. Therefore, antisolvent-dialysis is new method to obtain white zein micro- and nanoparticles with potential applications such as polymer matrix and white natural coloring.

Zein Beta-Cyclodextrin Micropowders for Iron Bisglycinate Delivery

Given the limited number of materials available to design delivery platforms for nutrients, the rational combination of raw materials already approved as food ingredients and their processing through nano-micro technology can offer a unique tool for innovation. Here, we propose a nano-in-micro strategy to produce powders based on the hydrophobic protein zein, useful for the oral delivery of a hydrophilic iron source (iron bisglycinate) in anaemic patients. Iron-loaded powders were prepared through a two-step strategy consisting in the formation of a zein pseudolatex followed by a spray-drying step. To extend the manipulation space for zein and entrap iron bisglycinate, β-cyclodextrin (βCD) was selected as helping excipient. Addition of βCD allowed iron loading in the pseudolatex and greatly increased product yields after the drying process as compared to zein alone. Iron-loaded micro-sized powders were characterised by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectra, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to elucidate the role of βCD as a compatibilizer for the zein-iron system. Remarkably, micropowders released only 20% of FeBIS in a simulated gastric fluid, whereas release in a simulated intestinal fluid was almost completed in 7 h. In summary, βCD association to zein is a novel strategy to expand applications in the oral delivery of iron bisglycinate and, prospectively, to micronutrient chelates.

Core-Shell Nanoencapsulation of α-Tocopherol by Blending Sodium Oleate and Rebaudioside A: Preparation, Characterization, and Antioxidant Activity

Nanoencapsulation of α-tocopherol (α-TOC) by blending sodium oleate (NaOl) and rebaudioside A (RebA) was successfully prepared by self-assembly method under mild conditions. The optimized nanoemulsion showed the loading capacity of α-TOC was 30 wt% of sodium oleate. FTIR analysis suggested that hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions were the major forces in α-TOC-NaOl/RebA complexes that were spherical and possessed well-distinguishable core-shell structures. The freeze-dried α-TOC-NaOl/RebA complexes had great stability under ambient conditions. The release profile of α-TOC showed a first-order kinetics reaching around 67.9% after 90 h at 25 °C. Nanoencapsulation improved dispersibility and greatly increased the antioxidant activity of α-TOC. Therefore, the stable α-TOC-NaOl/RebA core-shell complexes prepared from “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) ingredients have great potential to supplement α-TOC in food and cosmetic products.

Biological macromolecule delivery system fabricated using zein and gum arabic to control the release rate of encapsulated tocopherol during in vitro digestion

Nanoparticles were fabricated by adsorbing gum arabic (GA) on zein nanoparticles by antisolvent precipitation. The most stable mass ratio of zein:GA was 1:1.5 with a stable zeta-potential (-32.8 mV) in a pH range of 3.0-9.0. The surface hydrophobicity of zein-GA nanoparticles indicated formation of a stable structure through electrostatic attraction at a pH range of 3.0-6.0 and hydrophobic interaction at pH 7.0-9.0. The FTIR spectrogram showed an additional role of hydrogen bonds to promote the adsorption of GA on zein nanoparticles. Tocopherol (TOC) was encapsulated within the prepared zein-GA nanoparticles with a high loading capacity. The presence of GA not only prevented the precipitation of zein nanoparticles but also controlled the release of TOC from zein-GA nanoparticles during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Zein-GA biopolymer nanoparticles can be stably fabricated in a wide pH range for applications in the food and pharmacy industries.