Process Optimization of Tinospora cordifolia Extract-Loaded Water in Oil Nanoemulsion Developed by Ultrasound-Assisted Homogenization

Nanoemulsions are gaining interest in a variety of products as a means of integrating easily degradable bioactive compounds, preserving them from oxidation, and increasing their bioavailability. However, preparing stable emulsion compositions with the desired characteristics is a difficult task. The aim of this study was to encapsulate the Tinospora cordifolia aqueous extract (TCAE) into a water in oil (W/O) nanoemulsion and identify its critical process and formulation variables, like oil (27-29.4 mL), the surfactant concentration (0.6-3 mL), and sonication amplitude (40% to 100%), using response surface methodology (RSM). The responses of this formulation were studied with an analysis of the particle size (PS), free fatty acids (FFAs), and encapsulation efficiency (EE). In between, we have studied a fishbone diagram that was used to measure risk and preliminary research. The optimized condition for the formation of a stable nanoemulsion using quality by design was surfactant (2.43 mL), oil concentration (27.61 mL), and sonication amplitude (88.6%), providing a PS of 171.62 nm, FFA content of 0.86 meq/kg oil and viscosity of 0.597 Pa.s for the blank sample compared to the enriched TCAE nanoemulsion with a PS of 243.60 nm, FFA content of 0.27 meq/kg oil and viscosity of 0.22 Pa.s. The EE increases with increasing concentrations of TCAE, from 56.88% to 85.45%. The RSM response demonstrated that both composition variables had a considerable impact on the properties of the W/O nanoemulsion. Furthermore, after the storage time, the enriched TCAE nanoemulsion showed better stability over the blank nanoemulsion, specially the FFAs, and the blank increased from 0.142 to 1.22 meq/kg oil, while TCAE showed 0.266 to 0.82 meq/kg.

Prospect of Gum Arabic-Cocoliposome Matrix to Encapsulate Curcumin for Oral Administration

Curcumin is an antioxidant that can effectively eliminate free radicals. However, as its oral bioavailability is low, an effective delivery method is required. Phospholipid-based liposomes can encapsulate lipophilic drugs, such as curcumin, while liposome, cholesterol, and gum Arabic (GA) can enhance the internal and external stability of drug membranes. This present study used concentrations of cholesterol (Cchol) and GA (CGA), ranging from 0 to 10, 20, 30, and 40% as well as 0 to 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40%, respectively, to encapsulate curcumin in a GA-cocoliposome (CCL/GA) matrix and test its efficacy in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) and simulated gastric fluid (SGF). The absence of new characteristic peaks in the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra results indicate the presence of non-covalent interactions in the CCL/GA encapsulation. Furthermore, increasing the Cchol decreased the encapsulation efficiency (EE), loading capacity (LC), and antioxidant activity (IR) of the CCL/GA encapsulation but increased its release rate (RR). Conversely, increasing CGA increased its EE and IR but decreased its LC and RR. The two conditions applied confirmed this. Liposomal curcumin had the highest IR in SIF (84.081%) and the highest RR in SGF (0.657 ppm/day). Furthermore, liposomes loaded with 10% Cchol and 20% CGA performed best in SIF, while those loaded with 10% Cchol and 30% CGA performed best in SGF. Lastly, the CCL/GA performed better in SIF than SGF.

Physical Stability and Antioxidant Ability of a Sustainable Oil-in-Water Emulsion Containing Perilla Skin Extract and Upcycled Aquasoya Powder

In response to environmental issues, upcycling has become a growing trend in the food industry. Aquasoya is a promising method to upcycle by-product from soybean processing due to its high protein contents and excellent emulsifying ability. In the present research, Aquasoya powder was used an emulsifier to incorporate the antioxidant compounds from perilla skin extract (PSE), namely rosmarinic acid, into oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion system and its physochemical stability was assessed. As a result, droplet size of the emulsion was smaller in PSE-incorporated emulsion (PO, 350.57 ± 9.60 b nm) than the emulsion without PSE (PX, 1045.37 ± 142.63 a nm). Centrifugal photosedimentometry analysis also revealed that the physical stability was significantly improved in PO, and the stability was maintained over 30 d of storage. Furthermore, as PO had a higher ABTS radical scavenging ability and showed slower initial lipid oxidation, it was concluded that PO has a higher antioxidant ability than PX. Conclusively, Aquasoya can be considered as an emulsifier in O/W emulsion with PSE because it can effectively integrate and stabilize the antioxidant substance derived from perilla skin.

Design, optimization, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of metformin-loaded liposomes for triple negative breast cancer treatment

Recently, metformin (Met) has shown to have antineoplastic properties in cancer treatment by improving hypoxic tumor conditions, and causing reduction in the synthesis of biomolecules, which are vital for cancer growth. However, as an orally administered drug, Met has low bioavailability and rapid renal clearance. Thus, the goal of this study was to vectorize Met inside liposomes in the context of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), which currently lacks treatment options when compared to other types of breast cancer. Vectorization of Met inside liposomes was done using Bangham method by implementing double design of experiment methodology to increase Met drug loading (minimum-run resolution V characterization design and Box-Behnken design), as it is generally extremely low for hydrophilic molecules. Optimization of Met-loaded liposome synthesis was successfully achieved with drug loading of 190 mg/g (19% w/w). The optimal Met-liposomes were 170 nm in diameter with low PdI (< 0.1) and negative surface charge (-20 mV), exhibiting sustained Met release at pH 7.4. The liposomal Met delivery system was stable over several months, and successfully reduced TNBC cell proliferation due to the encapsulated drug. This study is one the first reports addressing liposome formulation through thin-film hydration using two design of experiment methods aiming to increase drug loading of Met.

Fabrication and stability of W/O/W emulsions stabilized by gum arabic and polyglycerol polyricinoleate

BACKGROUND

In order to study the effect of adsorption of surfactant at the two interfacial layers on emulsion stability, the kinetically stable water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion carriers were prepared using polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) and gum arabic (GA) as emulsifiers. The relationship between the adsorption of the surfactant and the stability mechanism of the emulsions was elucidated.

RESULTS

When the contents of PGPR and GA were low, the interfaces between oil and the inner and outer water phases, respectively, could not be completely covered. However, when the concentration of PGPR was higher than 60 g kg-1 , the excess PGPR was adsorbed on the interface between the oil phase and the outer water phase. When the concentration of GA reached 80 g kg-1 , more GA was adsorbed to the oil-in-water interface. Moreover, the presence of PGPR on the interface could reduce the adsorption capacity of GA. Two types of kinetically stable emulsions were obtained by optimizing the interface composition (60 g kg-1 GA/80 g kg-1 PGPR and 60 g kg-1 PGPR/80 g kg-1 GA). The kinetically stable W/O/W emulsions prepared in this study were successfully used to encapsulate a hydrophilic vitamin (vitamin B12) with an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 80% and release efficiency (RE) of 95%. The interfacial adsorption GA can accelerate the hydrolysis of fat.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study provides a new strategy for the preparation of W/O/W emulsions, which might be beneficial for application in food, cosmetic, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Unveiling the Role of Nonionic Surfactants in Enhancing Cefotaxime Drug Solubility: A UV-Visible Spectroscopic Investigation in Single and Mixed Micellar Formulations

This study reports the interfacial phenomenon of cefotaxime in combination with nonionic surfactants, Triton X-100 (TX-100) and Tween-80 (TW-80), and their mixed micellar formulations. Cefotaxime was enclosed in a micellar system to improve its solubility and effectiveness. TX-100 and TW-80 were used in an amphiphilic self-assembly process to create the micellar formulation. The effect of the addition of TX-100, a nonionic surfactant, on the ability of TW-80 to solubilize the drug was examined. The values of the critical micelle concentration (CMC) were determined via UV-Visible spectroscopy. Gibbs free energies (ΔGp and ΔGb), the partition coefficient (Kx), and the binding constant (Kb) were also computed. In a single micellar system, the partition coefficient (Kx) was found to be 33.78 × 106 and 2.78 × 106 in the presence of TX-100 and TW-80, respectively. In a mixed micellar system, the value of the partition coefficient for the CEF/TW-80 system is maximum (5.48 × 106) in the presence of 0.0019 mM of TX-100, which shows that TX-100 significantly enhances the solubilizing power of micelles. It has been demonstrated that these surfactants are effective in enhancing the solubility and bioavailability of therapeutic compounds. This study elaborates on the physicochemical characteristics and solubilization of reactive drugs in single and mixed micellar media. This investigation, conducted in the presence of surfactants, shows a large contribution to the binding process via both hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions.

Liposomes as Carriers of GHK-Cu Tripeptide for Cosmetic Application

Liposomes are self-assembled spherical systems composed of amphiphilic phospholipids. They can be used as carriers of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances, such as the anti-aging and wound-healing copper-binding peptide, GHK-Cu (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine). Anionic (AL) and cationic (CL) hydrogenated lecithin-based liposomes were obtained as GHK-Cu skin delivery systems using the thin-film hydration method combined with freeze-thaw cycles and the extrusion process. The influence of total lipid content, lipid composition and GHK-Cu concentration on the physicochemical properties of liposomes was studied. The lipid bilayer fluidity and the peptide encapsulation efficiency (EE) were also determined. Moreover, in vitro assays of tyrosinase and elastase inhibition were performed. Stable GHK-Cu-loaded liposome systems of small sizes (approx. 100 nm) were obtained. The bilayer fluidity was higher in the case of cationic liposomes. As the best carriers, 25 mg/cm3 CL and AL hydrated with 0.5 mg/cm3 GHK-Cu were selected with EE of 31.7 ± 0.9% and 20.0 ± 2.8%, respectively. The obtained results confirmed that the liposomes can be used as carriers for biomimetic peptides such as copper-binding peptide and that the GHK-Cu did not significantly affect the tyrosinase activity but led to 48.90 ± 2.50% elastase inhibition, thus reducing the rate of elastin degeneration and supporting the structural integrity of the skin.

Development of olanzapine solid dispersion by spray drying technique using screening design for solubility enhancement

Introduction

Olanzapine (OLZ) is a psychotropic class drug commonly used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and acute manic episodes. It has less water solubility, resulting in a slow dissolution rate and oral bioavailability. Therefore, the development in oral dosage forms is required to enhance the drug solubility.

Method

The solid dispersion of olanzapine is prepared by spray drying technique. The solution of polyvinylpyrrolidone K-30 (PVP K-30), mono amino glycyrrhizinate pentahydrate (GLY), OLZ and silicon dioxide were dissolved in distilled water and ethanol and spray dried to get the solid dispersion. Solid dispersion was characterized for surface morphology, solubility, encapsulation efficiency (EE), X-ray diffraction (X-RD), Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) and drug-polymer interaction by Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy.

Results

The amorphous nature of the drug's incorporation in solid dispersion was confirmed by X-RD analysis. Prepared solid dispersion showed higher solubility, 11.51 mg, than pure OLZ (0.983 mg ml-1), while the range of EE was found to be between 64 to 90 %.

Conclusions

The solubility and dissolution rate of the OLZ can effectively increase by spray-dried solid dispersion. Plackett-Burman screening design plays a vital role in understanding the effect of independent variables on EE and solubility.

Strategies for improving loading of emulsion-based functional oil powder

Functional oil is type of oil that is beneficial to human health and has nutritional value, however, functional oils are rich in bioactive substances such as polyunsaturated fatty acids which are sensitive to environmental factors and are susceptible to oxidation or decomposition. Construction of emulsion-based oil powder is a promising approach for improving the stability and solubility of functional oils. However, the low effective loading of oil in powder is the main challenge limiting encapsulation technology. This manuscript focuses on reviewing the current research progress of emulsion-based functional oil powder construction and systematically summarizes the processing characteristics of emulsion-based oil powder with high payload and summarizing the strategies to enhance the payload of powder in term of emulsification and drying, respectively. The impact of emulsion formation on oil powder production is discussed from different characteristics of emulsions, including emulsion composition, emulsification methods and emulsion types. In addition, the current status of improving material loading performance by various modifications to the drying technology is discussed, including the addition of drying processing additives, changes in drying parameters and the effect of innovative technological means.

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction of Astaxanthin from Shrimp By-Products Using Vegetable Oils

BACKGROUND

The use of conventional astaxanthin extraction methods, typically involving organic solvents, leads to a heightened environmental impact. The aim of this study was to explore the potential use of environmentally friendly extraction solvents, such as vegetable oils, for recovering the shrimp by-product astaxanthin.

METHODS

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) in vegetable oils, including olive oil (OO), sunflower oil (SO), and flaxseed oil (FO), was employed to extract astaxanthin. The astaxanthin antioxidant activity was evaluated using an ABTS assay, and a mixture of gum Arabic and soy lecithin was used to form coacervates to produce astaxanthin encapsulation.

RESULTS

A by-product-vegetable oil ratio of 1:60, extraction time of 210 min, 60% amplitude of the extraction process, and the use of OO as the extracting medium resulted in an astaxanthin yield of 235 ± 4.07 μg astaxanthin/g by-products. The astaxanthin encapsulation efficiency on day 0 and astaxanthin recovery on day 1 were recorded at 66.6 ± 2.7% and 94.4 ± 4.6%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The utilization of OO as an extraction solvent for astaxanthin from shrimp by-products in UAE represents a novel and promising approach to reducing the environmental impact of shrimp by-products. The effective astaxanthin encapsulation efficiency highlights its potential application in food industries.

Characterization of Nanoemulsions Stabilized with Different Emulsifiers and Their Encapsulation Efficiency for Oregano Essential Oil: Tween 80, Soybean Protein Isolate, Tea Saponin, and Soy Lecithin

The use of the appropriate emulsifier is essential for forming a stable nanoemulsion delivery system that can maintain the sustained release of its contents. Health concerns have prompted the search for natural biopolymers to replace traditional synthetic substances as emulsifiers. In this study, an oregano essential oil (OEO) nanoemulsion-embedding system was created using soybean protein isolate (SPI), tea saponin (TS), and soy lecithin (SL) as natural emulsifiers and then compared to a system created using a synthetic emulsifier (Tween 80). The results showed that 4% Tween 80, 1% SPI, 2% TS, and 4% SL were the optimal conditions. Subsequently, the influence of emulsifier type on nanoemulsion stability was evaluated. The results revealed that among all the nanoemulsions, the TS nanoemulsion exhibited excellent centrifugal stability, storage stability, and oxidative stability and maintained high stability and encapsulation efficiency, even under relatively extreme environmental conditions. The good stability of the TS nanoemulsion may be due to the strong electrostatic repulsion generated by TS molecules, which contain hydroxyl groups, sapogenins, and saccharides in their structures. Overall, the natural emulsifiers used in our study can form homogeneous nanoemulsions, but their effectiveness and stability differ considerably.

Inulin-whey protein as efficient vehicle carrier system for chlorophyll: Optimization, characterization, and functional food application

Natural chlorophylls mostly found in vegetables such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea) could be employed as a possible substitute for synthetic colorants because of their intense green properties. However, the stability of natural chlorophyll is a major challenge to its utilization in the food industry. In this study, spray drying as an encapsulation technique was used to improve the stability of natural chlorophyll. Box-Behnken design was utilized to optimize the spray drying conditions for chlorophyll. Optimum conditions were given as inlet temperature, 132°C; inulin-to-whey protein isolate ratio, 61%:39%; pump rate, 25%, resulting in 92.3% encapsulation efficiency, 69.4% solubility, and -13.5 mV zeta potential at a desirability level of 0.901. The particle size, Carr index, bulk and tapped density, polydispersity index, and color showed satisfactory results. Crystallinity, endothermic peak melting temperature, and the enthalpy of chlorophyll-loaded microcapsules increased when compared to the blank microcapsules suggesting decreased hygroscopicity and enhanced thermal stability. In addition, the suitability of fabricated microcapsules using yogurt as a food model was assessed. Yogurt incorporated with chlorophyll-loaded microcapsules showed no significant pH modification with better apparent viscosity than control and sodium copper chlorophyllin (SCC) yogurt after 9 days of refrigerated storage. Based on the studied responses, the spray drying process could be optimized to achieve optimal output and product quality. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Spray drying is a cheap and convenient approach for microencapsulating bioactive compounds such as chlorophyll. However, the physico-chemical and functional properties of the spray-dried microcapsules are influenced by operating conditions, such as inlet temperature, type and concentration of wall materials, and feed flow rate. Therefore, to maximize and obtain a superior quality of the final product, there is a need to optimize the spray drying process. The Box-Behnken design employed in this study could be utilized as an appropriate technique to design, enhance, and develop process parameters for the fabrication and better retention of the physico-chemical properties of spray-dried chlorophyll microcapsules.

From Design to Study of Liposome-Driven Drug Release Part 1: Impact of Temperature and pH on Environment

The marketed drug Doxorubicin (DOX) and the promising anti-cancer agent 9-(N-piperazinyl)-5-methyl-12(H)-quino[3,4-b][1,4]benzothiazinium chloride (9-PBThACl) were used to prepare and compare a range of liposomal delivery systems based on dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). Liposome-assisted drug release was examined using the spectrophotometric method. In order to provide in vitro release characteristics of liposomal conjugates (L_DPPC/drug vs. L_{DPPC/drug/drug}) as well as to evaluate the impact of temperature and pH buffering on the conformation/polarity of the phospholipid bilayer, the encapsulation efficiency of the liposomes entrapping 9-PBThACl and DOX was calculated. In fact, some competition between the investigated molecules was noticed during the entrapment process because relatively high values of the encapsulation efficiency were observed only for the liposomal complexes containing one trapped drug molecule. An averaged absorbance value enabled us to indicate the pH value of the environment (pH ≈ 6.8), at which the physicochemical property profiles of the liposomal complexes were noticeably changed. Moreover, the operational factors limiting the drug release kinetics from the produced liposomes were mathematically modeled. First-order and Bhaskas models ensured satisfactory compliance with the experimental data for the liposomal complexes buffered at pH values of 5.50, 6.00, and 7.40, respectively.

Formulation and Characteristics of Edible Oil Nanoemulsions Modified with Polymeric Surfactant for Encapsulating Curcumin

Curcumin (Cur) is a beneficial phytochemical with numerous health advantages. However, its limited solubility in oil and poor stability hinder its potential for biomedical applications. In this study, we employed a mixture of food-grade Tween 60, a polymeric surfactant, and Span 60 to adjust the hydrophilic lipophilic balance number (HLB_t) and prepared nanoemulsions (NEs) of coconut oil (Cc oil) as carriers for Cur. The effects of HLB_t values, surfactant-to-oil ratio, and oil ratio on the physicochemical characteristics of the food-grade oil-NEs were investigated using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, fluorescence polarization spectroscopy, and viscometry. Increasing the addition ratio of Tween 60 in the NEs, thereby increasing the HLB_t, resulted in a reduction in NE size and an improvement in their storage stability. The temperature and size of the phase transition region of the NEs decreased with increasing HLB_t. NEs with higher HLB_t exhibited a disordering effect on the intra-NE molecular packing of Cc oil. NEs with high HLB_t displayed low viscosity and demonstrated nearly Newtonian fluid behavior, while those with lower HLB_t exhibited pseudoplastic fluid behavior. Cur was effectively encapsulated into the Cc oil-NEs, with higher encapsulation efficiency observed in NEs with higher HLB_t values. Furthermore, the Cur remaining activity was significantly enhanced through encapsulation within stable NEs. The biocompatibility of the Cc oil-NEs was also demonstrated in vitro. In summary, this study highlights the preparation of stable NEs of Cc oil by adjusting the HLB_t using Tween 60, facilitating effective encapsulation of Cur. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of Cur carriers with improved solubility, stability, and bioavailability.

Wall Materials for Encapsulating Bioactive Compounds via Spray-Drying: A Review

Spray-drying is a continuous encapsulation method that effectively preserves, stabilizes, and retards the degradation of bioactive compounds by encapsulating them within a wall material. The resulting capsules exhibit diverse characteristics influenced by factors such as operating conditions (e.g., air temperature and feed rate) and the interactions between the bioactive compounds and the wall material. This review aims to compile recent research (within the past 5 years) on spray-drying for bioactive compound encapsulation, emphasizing the significance of wall materials in spray-drying and their impact on encapsulation yield, efficiency, and capsule morphology.

Asymmetric Lipid Vesicles: Techniques, Applications, and Future Perspectives as an Innovative Drug Delivery System

Novel lipid-based nanosystems have been of interest in improving conventional drug release methods. Liposomes are the most studied nanostructures, consisting of lipid bilayers ideal for drug delivery, thanks to their resemblance to the cell plasma membrane. Asymmetric liposomes are vesicles with different lipids in their inner and outer layers; because of this, they can be configured to be compatible with the therapeutic drug while achieving biocompatibility and stability. Throughout this review, topics such as the applications, advantages, and synthesis techniques of asymmetric liposomes will be discussed. Further, an in silico analysis by computational tools will be examined as a helpful tool for designing and understanding asymmetric liposome mechanisms in pharmaceutical applications. The dual-engineered design of asymmetric liposomes makes them an ideal alternative for transdermal drug delivery because of the improved protection of pharmaceuticals without lowering adsorption rates and system biocompatibility.

Modeling of Chitosan modified PLGA atorvastatin-curcumin conjugate (AT-CU) nanoparticles, overcoming the barriers associated with PLGA: an approach for better management of atherosclerosis

Conjugate drugs are evolving into potent techniques in the drug development process for enhancing the biopharmaceutical, physicochemical, and pharmacokinetic properties. Atorvastatin (AT) is the first line of treatment for coronary atherosclerosis; however its therapeutic efficacy is limited because of its poor solubility and fast pass metabolism. Curcumin (CU) is evidenced in several crucial signaling pathways linked to lipid regulation and inflammation. To enhance the therapeutic efficacy and physical properties of AT and CU, a new conjugate derivative (AT-CU) was synthesized and assessed by in silico, in vitro characterizations, and in vivo efficacy through mice model. Although the biocompatibility and biodegradability of Polylactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) in nanoparticles are well documented, burst release is a common issue with this polymer. Hence the current work used chitosan as a drug release modifier to the PLGA nanoparticles. The chitosan-modified PLGA AT-CU nanoparticles were prepaid by single emulsion and solvent evaporation technique. With raising the concentration of chitosan the particle size grew from 139.2 nm to 197.7 nm, the zeta potential rose from -20.57 mV to 28.32 mV, and the drug encapsulation efficiency improved from 71.81 % to 90.57 %. At 18 hours, the burst release of AT-CU from PLGA nanoparticles was seen, hitting abruptly 70.8%. For chitosan-modified PLGA nanoparticles, the burst release pattern was significantly reduced which could be due to the adsorption of the drug on the surface of chitosan. The efficiency of the ideal formulation i.e F4 (chitosan/PLGA= 0.4) in treating atherosclerosis was further strongly evidenced by in vivo investigation.

Box-Behnken Design of Experiments of Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles Loaded with Irinotecan Hydrochloride

BACKGROUND

The Box-Behnken design of experiments (BBD) is a statistical modelling technique that allows the determination of the significant factors in developing nanoparticles (NPs) using a limited number of runs. It also allows the prediction of the best levels of variables to obtain the desired characteristics (size, charge, and encapsulation efficiency) of the NPs. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of the independent variables (amount of polymer and drug, and surfactant concentration) and their interaction on the characteristics of the irinotecan hydrochloride (IRH)-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) NPs and to determine the most optimum conditions for producing the desired NPs.

METHODS

The development of the NPs was carried out by a double emulsion solvent evaporation technique with yield enhancement. The NPs data were fitted in Minitab software to obtain the best fit model.

RESULTS

By using BBD, the most optimum conditions for producing the smallest size, highest magnitude of charge, and highest EE% of PCL NPs were predicted to be achieved by using 61.02 mg PCL, 9 mg IRH, and 4.82% PVA, which would yield 203.01 nm, -15.81 mV, and 82.35% EE.

CONCLUSION

The analysis by BBD highlighted that the model was a good fit to the data, confirming the suitability of the design of the experiments.

Effect of Liposomal Encapsulation and Ultrasonication on Debittering of Protein Hydrolysate and Plastein from Salmon Frame

The impacts of liposomal encapsulation on the bitterness of salmon frame protein hydrolysate (SFPH) and salmon frame protein plastein (SFPP) with the aid of ultrasound (20% amplitude, 750 W) for different time intervals (30, 60 and 120 s) were investigated. Liposomes loaded with 1% protein hydrolysate (L-PH1) and 1% plastein (L-PT1) showed the highest encapsulation efficiency and the least bitterness (p < 0.05). Ultrasonication for longer times reduced encapsulation efficiency (EE) and increased bitterness of both L-PH1 and L-PT1 along with a reduction in particle size. When comparing between L-PH1 and L-PT1, the latter showed less bitterness due to the lower bitterness in nature and higher entrapment of plastein in the liposomes. In vitro release studies also showed the delayed release of peptides from L-PT1 in comparison to the control plastein hydrolysate. Therefore, encapsulation of liposomes with 1% plastein could be an efficient delivery system for improving the sensory characteristics by lowering the bitterness of protein hydrolysates.

Composition characterization and biological activity study of Achillea vermicularis extract and extract-loaded nanoparticles

Antiproliferative activity of Achillea vermicularis extracts was calculated on glial (C6) and keratinocyte (HaCaT) cell lines using XTT assay. It was observed that all extracts of A. vermicularis at the determined concentration were not cytotoxic in HaCaT cell lines. The nanoparticles (NPs) of the extract with the best cytotoxic activity was prepared, and necessary characterization studies were performed. Results showed that NP containing the extract has a lower IC₅₀ value and more cytotoxic activity in C6 cells compared to the only extract. Furthermore, the antiepileptic potentials of these substances were explored in this study. The effect of A. vermicularis extracts on the enzyme activities of carbonic anhydrase I and II isoenzymes (hCA I and hCA II) was measured using spectrophotometry to achieve this goal. A. vermicularis extracts demonstrated high inhibitory activities compared to standard inhibitor (acetazolamide, AAZ), with IC₅₀ values in the range of 5.04-10.8 μg/ml for hCA I, and 5.40-9.22 μg/ml for hCA II. High-performance liquid chromatography diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) was used in this investigation to assess the main chemicals found in the extract and NPs. The results showed that the ethanol extract (157.636 μg/mg extract) and NPs (4.631 μg/mg extract) had a significant amount of the 8-hydroxy salvigenin component.

Preparation of uniform-sized GeXIVA[1,2]-loaded PLGA microspheres as long-effective release system with high encapsulation efficiency

The purpose of this study was to prepare GeXIVA[1,2] PLGA microspheres by W/O/W re-emulsification-solvent evaporation technology and to develop sustained-release formulations to meet the clinical treatment needs of chronic neuropathic pain. Through prescription optimization, the uniformity of particle size and the encapsulation efficiency is improved, so as to achieve the quality standard of the microspheres. The mechanism of trehalose improving the stability of GeXIVA[1,2] was studied and verified by molecular simulation. The results showed that when adding trehalose to W1, using the PLGA model of 75:25, PLGA concentration of 30%, PVA concentration of 1.5%, adding 1% NaCl to PVA and adding 1% NaCl to solidification water, the prepared microspheres are smooth, the particle size is about 25 μm, and the encapsulation rate reaches 90%. The results of in vitro release experiments showed that the microspheres could be released steadily for about 30 days. The microsphere samples were characterized and analyzed by molecular simulation and powder X-ray diffractometer, and the protective mechanism of trehalose on GeXIVA[1,2] was discussed. The results showed that the hydrogen bond formed between trehalose and GeXIVA[1,2] acted as a hydration film and played a certain protective role on GeXIVA[1,2]. In addition, high-viscosity trehalose can form a glass state and wrap around GeXIVA[1,2], reducing the free movement of molecules. In the microsphere system, trehalose can also avoid the influence of PLGA material on the secondary structure of GeXIVA[1,2]. In conclusion, this study is expected to provide a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain.

Microencapsulation of Piscirickettsia salmonis Antigens for Fish Oral Immunization: Optimization and Stability Studies

The development of fish oral vaccines is of great interest to the aquaculture industry due to the possibility of rapid vaccination of a large number of animals at reduced cost. In a previous study, we evaluated the effect of alginate-encapsulated Piscirickettsia salmonis antigens (AEPSA) incorporated in feed, effectively enhancing the immune response in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). In this study, we seek to characterize AEPSA produced by ionic gelation using an aerodynamically assisted jetting (AAJ) system, to optimize microencapsulation efficiency (EE%), to assess microparticle stability against environmental (pH, salinity and temperature) and gastrointestinal conditions, and to evaluate microparticle incorporation in fish feed pellets through micro-CT-scanning. The AAJ system was effective in obtaining small microparticles (d < 20 μm) with a high EE% (97.92%). Environmental conditions (pH, salinity and temperature) generated instability in the microparticles, triggering protein release. 62.42% of the protein content was delivered at the intestinal level after in vitro digestion. Finally, micro-CT-scanning images confirmed microparticle incorporation in fish feed pellets. In conclusion, the AAJ system is effective at encapsulating P. salmonis antigens in alginate with a high EE% and a size small enough to be incorporated in fish feed and produce an oral vaccine.

Preparation and Characterization of PLG Microparticles by the Multiple Emulsion Method for the Sustained Release of Proteins

Rapid release and diminished stability are two of the limitations associated with the growth factors that are essentially used in dental applications. These growth factors are employed to enhance the quality and quantity of tissue or bone matter during regeneration. Therefore, drug delivery devices and systems have been developed to address these limitations. In this study, bovine serum albumin (BSA), as a representative growth factor, was successfully sustained by encapsulation with the medium-absorbable copolymer, poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) 70:30% mol, via the multiple emulsion method. Different PLG, PVA, and BSA concentrations were used to investigate their effects on the BSA encapsulation efficiency. The suitable ratios leading to a better characterization of microparticles and a higher encapsulation efficiency in producing encapsulated PLG microparticles were 8% (w/v) of PLG, 0.25% (w/v) of PVA, and 8% (w/v) of BSA. Furthermore, an in vitro release study revealed a bursting release of BSA from the encapsulated PLG microsphere in the early phase of development. Subsequently, a gradual release was observed over a period of eight weeks. Furthermore, to encapsulate LL-37, different proteins were used in conjunction with PLG under identical conditions with regard to the loading efficiency and morphology, thereby indicating high variations and poor reproducibility. In conclusion, the encapsulated PLG microparticles could effectively protect the protein during encapsulation and could facilitate sustainable protein release over a period of 60 days. Importantly, an optimal method must be employed in order to achieve a high degree of encapsulation efficiency for all of the protein or growth factors. Accordingly, the outcomes of this study will be useful in the manufacture of drug delivery devices that require medium-sustained release growth factors, particularly in dental treatments.

Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds for Food and Agricultural Applications

This review presents an updated scenario of findings and evolutions of encapsulation of bioactive compounds for food and agricultural applications. Many polymers have been reported as encapsulated agents, such as sodium alginate, gum Arabic, chitosan, cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose, pectin, Shellac, xanthan gum, zein, pullulan, maltodextrin, whey protein, galactomannan, modified starch, polycaprolactone, and sodium caseinate. The main encapsulation methods investigated in the study include both physical and chemical ones, such as freeze-drying, spray-drying, extrusion, coacervation, complexation, and supercritical anti-solvent drying. Consequently, in the food area, bioactive peptides, vitamins, essential oils, caffeine, plant extracts, fatty acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and terpenes are the main compounds encapsulated. In the agricultural area, essential oils, lipids, phytotoxins, medicines, vaccines, hemoglobin, and microbial metabolites are the main compounds encapsulated. Most scientific investigations have one or more objectives, such as to improve the stability of formulated systems, increase the release time, retain and protect active properties, reduce lipid oxidation, maintain organoleptic properties, and present bioactivities even in extreme thermal, radiation, and pH conditions. Considering the increasing worldwide interest for biomolecules in modern and sustainable agriculture, encapsulation can be efficient for the formulation of biofungicides, biopesticides, bioherbicides, and biofertilizers. With this review, it is inferred that the current scenario indicates evolutions in the production methods by increasing the scales and the techno-economic feasibilities. The Technology Readiness Level (TRL) for most of the encapsulation methods is going beyond TRL 6, in which the knowledge gathered allows for having a functional prototype or a representative model of the encapsulation technologies presented in this review.

Preparation and characterization of W1 /O/W2 emulsions stabilized by glycated and heat-modified egg white proteins

BACKGROUND

Water-in-oil-in-water (W₁ /O/W₂ ) emulsions stabilized by protein-carbohydrate complexes were prepared from an inner water phase (W₁ ), an oil phase (O) and an outer water phase (W₂ ). The complexes consisted of heat-induced aggregates (HIAs) of isomalto-oligosaccharide/egg white protein Maillard conjugates. The effects of polyglycerol ester of polyricinoleic acid (PGPR) concentration, HIA concentration, W₁ -to-O volume ratio and W₁ /O-to-W₂ volume ratio on the properties of the W₁ /O/W₂ emulsions were systematically investigated.

RESULTS

At sufficiently high PGPR concentrations (>2%), the emulsions possess a high negative charge (≈-44 mV). The encapsulation efficiency of the emulsions, which was determined by incorporating a hydrophilic yellow dye in the inner water phase prior to homogenization, was relatively high (up to 93%) and did not change significantly during 14-day storage at 4 °C. All emulsions were fluids that exhibited shear thinning behavior.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study shows that nature-derived emulsifiers can be used to create W₁ /O/W₂ emulsions suitable for application in the food industry. In addition, we provided a viable strategy to encapsulate water-soluble nutrients. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Preparation and Optimization of Ibrutinib-Loaded Nanoliposomes Using Response Surface Methodology

The main aim of this study was to optimize the formulation and process variables for the preparation of ibrutinib nanoliposomes and to evaluate the stability of nanoliposomes. The influence of four formulations and process parameters, namely, the phosphatidylcholine-to-cholesterol ratio (A), conc. of ibrutinib (B), sonication time (C), and stirring time (D) on the drug encapsulation efficiency (Y₁) and particle size (Y₂) of ibrutinib nanoliposomes were investigated by using response surface methodology. Reverse-phase evaporation was used to prepare ibrutinib nanoliposomes. Twenty-nine trial experiments were performed as per the design and the response parameters were noted. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess each response parameter. The effect of each factor on the response parameters was depicted using perturbation, response surface, and contour plots. A numerical optimization technique was used to estimate the optimum process parameters to obtain the desired responses. Ibrutinib nanoliposomes prepared under optimal conditions were evaluated for stability at a different temperature, pH, and sonication time. It is evident from the results that the phosphatidylcholine-to-cholesterol ratio (A) was the major factor influencing the encapsulation efficiency. All the factors were found to have noteworthy influences on particle size. A statistical evaluation provided the information about the individual and interactive effects of independent factors on the response parameters in order to obtain optimum experimental conditions that lead to preparing nanoliposomes with improved characteristics. The optimum level of the independent variables was phosphatidylcholine:cholesterol (6.76:1), ibrutinib concentration (2 mg/mL), sonication time (15.13 min), and stirring time (45 min). At optimal conditions, Y₁ and Y₂ were found to be 90.76 ± 1.56% and 208.24 ± 3.16 nm, respectively. The ibrutinib nanoliposomes were found to be stable both in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids at 37 °C for 6 h. At elevated conditions of temperature and pH, the prepared nanoliposomes were found to be unstable. Sonication for shorter periods resulted in decreased particle size, whereas longer periods can be helpful for ultrasound-assisted drug delivery. The closeness between the obtained results and predicted results indicates the reliability of the optimization technique for the preparation of ibrutinib nanoliposomes.

Spray drying encapsulation of essential oils; process efficiency, formulation strategies, and applications

Essential oils (EOs) have many beneficial qualities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, and antifungal activities, along with good aroma, which have played a significant role in pharmaceutical, textile, and food industries. However, their high volatility and sensibility to external factors, as well as susceptibility to deterioration caused by environmental and storage conditions, or even common processing, and consequently limited water solubility, makes it difficult to incorporate them into aqueous food matrices and limits their industrial application. Spray-drying encapsulation has been proposed as a solution and a challenging research field to retard oil oxidation, extend EO's shelf life, improve their physicochemical stability, achieve controlled release, suggest novel uses, and therefore boost their added value. The objective of this review is to discuss various used wall materials, infeed emulsion properties, the main formulation and process variables affecting the physicochemical properties and release characteristics of the EOs-loaded particles obtained by spray-drying, the stability of EOs during storage, and the applications of encapsulated EOs powders in foods and nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and textile industries. The current review also summarizes recent advances in spray drying approaches for improving encapsulation efficiency, flavor retention, controlled release, and applicability of encapsulated EOs, thereby expanding their use and functionalities.

Advances in encapsulating gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists for controlled release: a review

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists are peptides consisting of nine or ten amino acid residues. GnRH agonists have been applied in the therapy of sexual hormone disorders like prostate cancer, endometriosis, uterine myoma, central precious puberty, and in-vitro fertility. Treatment is achieved by continuous hormone intake and long-term agonists administration, which is usually associated with poor patient compliance. Because GnRH agonists that are administered with the parenteral route are broken down by peptidase, their half-life is short. As a result, developing sustained release for the drug delivery system is significant. Even though some drugs have been successfully delivered with long-acting release microspheres and approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), some challenges remain. This review highlighted current approaches to encapsulate GnRH agonists into delivery systems and strategies encountered during the loading process. Moreover, the following sections provide strategies to improve the release profile, and animal and human studies were summarised.

Ethosome Containing Ceramide as a Skin Carrier of Active Ingredients

BACKGROUND

Numerous formulations have been utilized in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries to effectively deliver bioactive ingredients. <P> Methods: We selected a well-known liposomal formulation of bilayer lipid vesicles composed of ceramide NP. Ethosomes contain hydrophilic vanillic acid or lipophilic α-bisabolol, and their physicochemical properties were evaluated. Vanillic acid is encapsulated in the aqueous core while α-bisabolol is engaged with the lipid phase. The formulation was prepared by the high-pressure homogenization method at 800 bar for 5 min. The particle size, polydispersity index and zeta potential of the ethosome dispersion were analyzed by dynamic light scattering. In order to measure the skin absorption efficiency from artificial skin, an in vitro assay was performed using the Franz diffusion cell method for 24 hours. In addition, ultracentrifuges for encapsulation efficiency, dialysis membranes for active ingredient release, and low temperature transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to evaluate the morphology of vesicles were utilized. <p> Results: The particle size of the ethosome containing ceramide NP and vanillic acid was in the range of 80 ~ 130 nm, whereas the particle size of the ethosome containing ceramide NP and α-bisabolol was 150 ~ 170 nm. In the vanillic acid-containing ethosome, increasing the amount of ceramide NP decreased the particle size, whereas the size of the α-bisabolol ethosome did not change. The stability of the prepared ethosome did not change significantly for 4 weeks at 25℃, 4℃, and 45℃. The skin absorption efficiency of ceramide NP and vanillic acid-containing ethosome was increased by about 15% compared to the control group, whereas the ethosome containing α-bisabolol and ceramide NP showed slightly higher skin absorption efficiency than the control group. In addition, encapsulation efficiency evaluation, active ingredient release measurement and cryo-TEM were taken. <p> Conclusion and Perspective: Based on the results of these studies, we suggest that ethosome formulations containing ceramide NP can be widely used in the cosmetic industry together with other cosmetic formulations.

Effects of Wall Material on Medium-Chain Triglyceride (MCT) Oil Microcapsules Prepared by Spray Drying

A medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil microcapsule was prepared by spray drying. The effects of the wall-material parameters of wall-to-oil ratio (1:1 to 3:1) and type of wall material (gum arabic (GA), whey protein isolate (WPI), and octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) starch) on the microcapsules were evaluated. The droplet size, size distribution, viscosity, zeta potential, and stability of the emulsions were measured. The spray-dried powder was characterized by its morphology, yield, encapsulation efficiency, and moisture content. The wall material influenced the characteristics of the emulsions and microcapsules. The formulation with a 2:1 wall-to-oil ratio and OSA starch/maltodextrin as the wall material resulted in a small droplet size (0.177 ± 0.002 µm) with high encapsulation efficiency (98.38 ± 0.01%). This formulation had good physical stability over three months under accelerated conditions. Thus, OSA starch/maltodextrin is an appropriate wall material for encapsulating MCT oil.

In Vitro Evaluation of Curcumin Encapsulation in Gum Arabic Dispersions under Different Environments

Biopolymers, especially polysaccharides (e.g., gum Arabic), are widely applied as drug carriers in drug delivery systems due to their advantages. Curcumin, with high antioxidant ability but limited solubility and bioavailability in the body, can be encapsulated in gum Arabic to improve its solubility and bioavailability. When curcumin is encapsulated in gum Arabic, it is essential to understand how it works in various conditions. As a result, in Simulated Intestinal Fluid and Simulated Gastric Fluid conditions, we investigated the potential of gum Arabic as the drug carrier of curcumin. This study was conducted by varying the gum Arabic concentrations, i.e., 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40%, to encapsulate 0.1 mg/mL of curcumin. Under both conditions, the greater the gum Arabic concentration, the greater the encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant activity of curcumin, but the worse the gum Arabic loading capacity. To achieve excellent encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, and antioxidant activity, the data advises that 10% is the best feasible gum Arabic concentration. Regarding the antioxidant activity of curcumin, the findings imply that a high concentration of gum Arabic was effective, and the Simulated Intestinal Fluid brought an excellent surrounding compared to the Simulated Gastric Fluid solution. Moreover, the gum Arabic releases curcumin faster in the Simulated Gastric Fluid condition.

[Correlation of the CTD structural domain of hepatitis B virus core protein with the encapsulation effect of indocyanine green]

Hepatitis B virus core protein (HBc) has become a hot spot in drug carrier protein research due to its natural particle self-assembly ability and ease of modification. The truncation of the C-terminal polyarginine domain (CTD, aa 151-183) of HBc does not affect the self-assembly of the particles. However, it does affect the internal and external charges of the particles, which may subsequently affect drug encapsulation. Thus, the truncated C-terminal polyarginine domain (CTD) of HBc and the inserted RGD peptide were selected to construct and express three HBc variants (RH) encapsulated with ICG (RH/ICG) with different C-terminal lengths to compare the stability and drug activity of their nanoformulations. RH160/ICG was found to have a great advantages in encapsulation efficiency and biological imaging. Compared with other HBc variants, RH160/ICG significantly improved encapsulation efficiency, up to 32.77%±1.23%. Cytotoxicity and hemolysis assays further demonstrated the good biocompatibility of RH160/ICG. Cell uptake and in vivo imaging experiments in mice showed that RH160/ICG could efficiently deliver ICG in tumor cells and tumor sites with good imaging effect. This research provides a new direction for further expanding the diagnosis and treatment application of ICG and development of HBc-based nanoparticle drug carrier platform.

Pioglitazone-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: Towards the Most Reliable Synthesis Method

Recent findings have proved the benefits of Pioglitazone (PGZ) against atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes. Since the systematic and controllable release of this drug is of significant importance, encapsulation of this drug in nanoparticles (NPs) can minimize uncontrolled issues. In this context, drug delivery approaches based on several poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles have been rising in popularity due to their promising capabilities. However, a fully reliable and reproducible synthetic methodology is still lacking. In this work, we present a rational optimization of the most critical formulation parameters for the production of PGZ-loaded PLGA NPs by the single emulsification-solvent evaporation or nanoprecipitation methods. We examined the influence of several variables (e.g., component concentrations, phases ratio, injection flux rate) on the synthesis of the PGZ-NPs. In addition, a comparison of these synthetic methodologies in terms of nanoparticle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ζ_p), drug loading (DL%), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and stability is offered. According to the higher entrapment efficiency content, enhanced storage time and suitable particle size, the nanoprecipitation approach appears to be the simplest, most rapid and most reliable synthetic pathway for these drug nanocarriers, and we demonstrated a very slow drug release in PBS for the best formulation obtained by this synthesis.

Validation of a Rapid and Easy-to-Apply Method to Simultaneously Quantify Co-Loaded Dexamethasone and Melatonin PLGA Microspheres by HPLC-UV: Encapsulation Efficiency and In Vitro Release

This paper discusses the development and validation of a rapid method for the reversed phase HPLC-UV quantification of biodegradable poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres co-loaded with two neuroprotective agents (dexamethasone and melatonin) (DX-MEL-MSs) to be intravitreally administered as a promising glaucoma treatment. The study was performed to validate two procedures that quantify the content of the two active substances entrapped into the polymer matrix during an encapsulation efficiency assay and the amount of drugs liberated over time during the in vitro release assay. The reversed-phase method allowed for the simultaneous determination of dexamethasone and melatonin, which were respectively detected at 240.5 and 222.7 nm. Chromatographic separation was performed using an Ascentis^® C18 HPLC Column (25 cm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) with an isocratic mobile phase composed of methanol-water (70:30, v/v) with 1.0 mL min⁻¹ flow rate. The two procedures were validated analytically in terms of system suitability testing, specificity, linearity, precision, accuracy, sensitivity, and robustness. Both the validated procedures were applied to characterize DX-MEL-MSs and were found appropriate to quantify the drug quantities encapsulated and estimate their release profile over 10 days. The validation study designed in this work can be helpful for planning any other protocols that refer to the quantification of PLGA based drug delivery systems.

Preparation of Curcumin Hydrogel Beads for the Development of Functional Kulfi: A Tailoring Delivery System

Curcumin has been demonstrated to have biological activities and its fortification in food products is an important strategy to deliver bioactive ingredients at target sites. However, studies have documented a curcumin low bioavailability and low intake. Hence, combining functional ingredients with food should be needed to prevent widespread nutrient intake shortfalls and associated deficiencies. Thus, curcumin was encapsulated in calcium-alginate and their characteristics as well as in vitro release behavior of curcumin hydrogel beads (CHBs) was studied. Moreover, CHBs were fortified in development of functional Kulfi and their quality characteristics were studied. The encapsulation efficiency was up to 95.04%, indicating that most of the curcumin was entrapped. FTIR shifts in the bands were due to the replacement of sodium ions to the calcium ions. In vitro release (%) for CHBs was found to be 67.15% after 2 h, which increased slightly up to 67.88% after 4 h. The average swelling index of CHBs was found to be 10.21 to 37.92 from 2 to 12 h in PBS (pH 7.40). Control and Kulfi fortified with CHBs showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in colour (L = 73.03 and 75.88) and the melting rate (0.88 mL/min and 0.63 mL/min), respectively. Standard plate count was reduced in the Kulfi fortified with CHBs (13.77 × 10⁴ CFU/mL) with high sensory score for overall acceptability (8.56) compared to the control (154.70 × 10⁴ CFU/mL). These findings suggested the feasibility of developing CHBs to mask the bitterness, enhance the solubility, and increase the bioavailability in gastrointestinal conditions. Additionally, Kulfi could be a suitable dairy delivery system for curcumin bioactive compounds.

Microencapsulation of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) anthocyanins: Effects of drying conditions on some physicochemical properties and antioxidant activities of spray-dried powder

Anthocyanins are important phytochemical compounds in nature that are of interest not only for their health benefits such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties, but also for their role in imparting attractive and characteristic color to food products. In this study, anthocyanins from hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces were microencapsulated by spray-drying technique using maltodextrin as the carrier. The experiment was carried out in the full factorial design with two factors, namely inlet temperature (150, 160, and 170°C) and anthocyanin to maltodextrin mass ratio (1:50, 1:60, 1:70, 1:80, 1:90, and 1:100) with the aim of investigating the effect of spray drying conditions on phenolic content, anthocyanin, antioxidant activity, and color of spray-dried hibiscus powder. The results showed that increasing the carrier ratio significantly reduced the antioxidant content and their activities in the powder. However, the high level of carriers exhibited a protective effect in encapsulating anthocyanin compounds into the maltodextrin matrix, which was demonstrated by high encapsulation efficiency (>85%) observed in the samples prepared at a ratio of 1:100. It should be highlighted that although high temperature (170°C) reduced total anthocyanin concentration, it actually enhanced total phenolic content. In addition, the moisture content of the powder declined with increasing carrier ratio and inlet temperature, and it was found to be in the range of 5.57%-10.19% in the powder. With solubility greater than 93.71%, the total phenolic and total anthocyanin content of spray-dried hibiscus powder were 31.5-41.9 (mg gallic acid equivalent/g of dry powder) and 6.08-10.47 (mg cyanidin-3-glucoside/g of dry powder), respectively.

Fabrication and Characterization of Quercetagetin-Loaded Nanoparticles Based on Shellac and Quaternized Chitosan: Improvement of Encapsulation Efficiency and Acid and Storage Stabilities

Shellac can be used as an ideal delivery vehicle to deliver and protect the hydrophobic quercetagetin; the barriers such as low acid stability and encapsulation efficiency, however, heavily impede the application of shellac. The purpose of this work is to prepare quercetagetin-loaded shellac-quaternized chitosan nanoparticles (Que-Sh-QCS NPs) to overcome these challenges. Herein, quaternized chitosan, with 14% degree of substitution, was successfully synthesized via a quaternization modification. The concentration of quaternized chitosan over 0.05% can prevent the aggregation of shellac nanoparticles at the acid. The encapsulation efficiency of quercetagetin obviously increased from 37.92 to 65.48% with the concentration of QCS varying from 0 to 0.05%. Meanwhile, Que-Sh-QCS_0.05 NPs possessed good storage stability, antioxidant property, biocompatibility, and controlled release. Therefore, quaternized chitosan can improve the encapsulation efficiency and acid and storage stabilities of nutraceutical-loaded shellac nanoparticles, providing a new insight into the application of shellac in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food.

Investigations on the influence of the structural flexibility of nanoliposomes on their properties

In the present study, nanoliposomes with tuneable structure elasticity were prepared by reverse-phase evaporation. Both Fluorescence Polarization and Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer was employed to characterize the structural elasticity of resultant nanoliposomes. Temozolomide, a kind of hydrophilic drug as the first-line treatment choice for glioblastoma, was encapsulated into nanoliposomes. The results showed that the flexibility of nanoliposomes gradually increased with sodium cholate, while decreasing with cholesterol, Labrafac CC and Labrafac PG adding. Furthermore, the structural flexibility of nanoliposomes was positively correlated with the encapsulation efficiency and release rate and cellular uptake. Our research reveals the structural flexibility of nanoliposomes could affect in vitro characteristics and thereafter in vivo behaviors of nanoliposomes.

Screening for Optimal Liposome Preparation Conditions by Using Dual Centrifugation and Time-Resolved Fluorescence Measurements

Dual centrifugation (DC) is a novel in-vial homogenization technique for the preparation of liposomes in small batch sizes under gentle and sterile conditions which allows encapsulation efficiencies (EE) for water soluble compounds of >50%. Since liposome size, size distribution (PDI), and EE depend on the lipid concentration used in the DC process, a screening method to find optimal lipid concentrations for a defined lipid composition was developed. Four lipid mixtures consisting of cholesterol, hydrogenated or non-hydrogenated egg PC, and/or PEG-DSPE were screened and suitable concentration ranges could be identified for optimal DC homogenization. In addition to the very fast and parallel liposome preparation of up to 40 samples, the screening process was further accelerated by the finding that DC generates homogeneously mixed liposomes from a macroscopic lipid mixture without the need to initially prepare a molecularly mixed lipid film from an organic solution of all components. This much simpler procedure even works for cholesterol containing lipid blends, which could be explained by a nano-milling of the cholesterol crystals during DC homogenization. Furthermore, EE determination was performed by time-resolved fluorescence measurements of calcein-loaded liposomes without removing the non-entrapped calcein. The new strategy allows the rapid characterization of a certain lipid composition for the preparation of liposomes within a working day.

Characterization of Cationic Modified Short Linear Glucan and Fabrication of Complex Nanoparticles with Low and High Methoxy Pectin

In this study, we chemically modified the short linear glucan (SLG) using the 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl trimethylammonium chloride to introduce a positive surface charge via cationization (CSLG). We then prepared CSLG-based binary nanocomplex particles through electrostatic interactions with low and high methoxyl pectin. The two new types of binary nanocomplex were comprehensively characterized. It was found that the nanocomplex particles showed a spherical shape with the particle size of <700 nm, smooth surface, homogeneous distribution, and negative surface charge. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed that the driving forces to form nanocomplex were primarily electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. In addition, increasing the CSLG concentration in the nanocomplex significantly enhanced both thermal stability and digestive stability. By comparing the two complex nanoparticles, the HMP-CSLG has a larger particle size and better stability under the GI condition due to the high content of the methoxy group. Additionally, the HMP-CSLG nanoparticle has a higher encapsulation efficiency and slower release rate under simulated gastrointestinal fluid for tangeretin compared with the LMP-CSLG. These results provide new insights into designing the CSLG-based nanocomplex as a potential oral delivery system for nutraceuticals or active ingredients.

Stable Ethosome-like Catanionic Vesicles for Transdermal Hydrophilic Drug Delivery with Predictable Encapsulation Efficiency

Lipid-like pseudo-double-chained catanionic surfactants have emerged as the attractive materials to prepare potential vesicular carriers in drug and gene delivery applications. In particular, the semi-spontaneous process has been developed to fabricate ethosome-like catanionic vesicles for the transdermal drug delivery. In this work, Arbutin (a water-soluble drug) encapsulation efficiency of ethosome-like catanionic vesicles fabricated from decyltrimethylammonium-tetradecylsulfate (DeTMA-TS, CH₃(CH₂)₉ N(CH₃)₃-CH₃(CH₂)₁₃SO₄) and decyltrimethylammonium-dodecylsulfate (DeTMA-DS, CH₃(CH₂)₉N(CH₃)₃-CH₃(CH₂)₁₁SO₄) with various amounts of ethanol and cholesterol in tris buffer solution was experimentally determined. A simple unilamellar vesicle (ULV) model, resulting in the theoretical encapsulation efficiency within ±10% error for most vesicle compositions, was also developed. Such agreement indirectly confirmed the formation of unilamellar vesicles by the preparation method. Stable ethosome-like catanionic vesicles by using catanionic surfactants with the aid of suitable amounts of ethanol and cholesterol, which led to polydispersity index (PDI) values of vesicle size distribution less than 0.3, were successfully prepared and their hydrophilic drug encapsulation efficiencies can be accurately predicted. Furthermore, the linear correlations of the trap volume ratio with both vesicle size and concentration of the extra added CHOL also provide important guidelines for controlling the drug loading of ethosome-like catanionic vesicles. The accomplishments reached for the novel vesicles are useful for developing their transdermal drug delivery applications.

Loading Effect of Chitosan Derivative Nanoparticles on Different Antigens and Their Immunomodulatory Activity on Dendritic Cells

Drug carrier nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by the polyelectrolyte method, with chitosan sulfate, with different substituents and quaternary ammonium chitosan, including C236-HACC NPs, C36-HACC NPs, and C6-HACC NPs. To evaluate whether the NPs are suitable for loading different antigens, we chose bovine serum albumin (BSA), ovalbumin (OVA), and myoglobin (Mb) as model antigens to investigate the encapsulation effect of the NPs. The characteristics (size, potential, and encapsulation efficiency) of the NPs were measured. Moreover, the NPs with higher encapsulation efficiency were selected for the immunological activity research. The results showed that chitosan derivative NPs with different substitution sites had different loading effects on the three antigens, and the encapsulation rate of BSA and OVA was significantly better than that of Mb. Moreover, the NPs encapsulated with different antigens have different immune stimulating abilities to DCS cells, the immune effect of OVA-coated NPs was significantly better than that of BSA-coated NPs and blank NPs, especially C236-HACC-OVA NPs. Furthermore, we found that C236-HACC-OVA NPs could increase the phosphorylation level of intracellular proteins to activate cell pathways. Therefore, C236-HACC NPs are more suitable for the loading of antigens similar to the OVA structure.

Chitosan-Based Anti-Oxidation Delivery Nano-Platform: Applications in the Encapsulation of DHA-Enriched Fish Oil

Refined cobia liver oil is a nutritional supplement (CBLO) that is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as DHA and EPA; however, PUFAs are prone to oxidation. In this study, the fabrication of chitosan-TPP-encapsulated CBLO nanoparticles (CS@CBLO NPs) was achieved by a two-step method, including emulsification and the ionic gelation of chitosan with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). The obtained nanoparticles were inspected by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and showed a positively charged surface with a z-average diameter of between 174 and 456 nm. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) results showed the three-stage weight loss trends contributing to the water evaporation, chitosan decomposition, and CBLO decomposition. The loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) of the CBLO loading in CS@CBLO NPs were 17.77-33.43% and 25.93-50.27%, respectively. The successful encapsulation of CBLO in CS@CBLO NPs was also confirmed by the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The oxidative stability of CBLO and CS@CBLO NPs was monitored by FTIR. As compared to CBLO, CS@CBLO NPs showed less oxidation with a lower generation of hydroperoxides and secondary oxidation products after four weeks of storage. CS@CBLO NPs are composed of two ingredients that are beneficial for health, chitosan and fish oil in a nano powdered fish oil form, with an excellent oxidative stability that will enhance its usage in the functional food and pharmaceutical industries.

Encapsulation of Purified Pediocin of Pediococcus Pentosaceus into Liposome Based Nanovesicles and its Antilisterial Effect

AIMS

To encapsulate a purified bacteriocin into nanovesicles and check its antibacterial effect Background: Although the use of nano-encapsulated bacteriocins in food matrices is poorly reported, encapsulated nisin can reduce L. monocytogenes counts in whole and skimmed milk and soft cheese.

OBJECTIVE

The present study deals with the extraction and purification of a bacteriocin from an isolated strain Pediococcus pentosaceus KC692718. A comparative study of the effect of free pediocin and liposome-encapsulated pediocin against Listeria sp. was performed.

METHODS

The purification of the extracted cell-free supernatant was subjected to ammonium sulphate precipitation, cation exchange chromatography, followed by gel permeation chromatography. The bacteriocin activity and protein concentration were determined using Lowry's method. The characterization of the pure pediocin was also done. Liposome-like nanovesicle was constructed, and the stability of the liposome-encapsulated pediocin was checked. Finally, the antibacterial effect of the free pediocin, liosome, and liposome-encapsulated pediocin was comparatively studied simultaneously.

RESULTS

The pediocin of 3.6 kDa was purified with a specific activity of 898.8 AU/mg. It remained stable at the pH range of 2.0 - 8.0 for one month when stored at -20°C, while it remained moderately stable above 80°C, . The encapsulated pediocin showed stability since it retained 50% of its initial activity. The encapsulated pediocin showed 89% of encapsulation efficiency Conclusion: The encapsulated pediocin not only improved pediocin stability but also enhanced the controlled release of the antimicrobial substances, enough for inhibiting the foodborne pathogen L. monocytogenes.

Engineering Quick- and Long-acting Naloxone Delivery Systems for Treating Opioid Overdose

Purpose

Opioids have been the main factor for drug overdose deaths in the United States. Current naloxone delivery systems are effective in mitigating the opioid effects only for hours. Naloxone-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microparticles were prepared as quick- and long-acting naloxone delivery systems to extend the naloxone effect as an opioid antidote.

Methods

The naloxone-PLGA microparticles were made using an emulsification solvent extraction approach with different formulation and processing parameters. Two PLGA polymers with the lactide:glycolide (L:G) ratios of 50:50 and 75:25 were used, and the drug loading was varied from 21% to 51%. Two different microparticles of different sizes with the average diameters of 23 μm and 50 μm were produced using two homogenization-sieving conditions. All the microparticles were critically characterized, and three of them were evaluated with β-arrestin recruitment assays.

Results

The naloxone encapsulation efficiency (EE) was in the range of 70–85%. The EE was enhanced when the theoretical naloxone loading was increased from 30% to 60%, the L:G ratio was changed from 50:50 to 75:25, and the average size of the particles was reduced from 50 μm to 23 μm. The in vitro naloxone release duration ranged from 4 to 35 days. Reducing the average size of the microparticles from 50 μm to 23 μm helped eliminate the lag phase and obtain the steady-state drug release profile. The cellular pharmacodynamics of three selected formulations were evaluated by applying DAMGO, a synthetic opioid peptide agonist to a μ-opioid receptor, to recruit β-arrestin 2.

Conclusions

Naloxone released from the three selected formulations could inhibit DAMGO-induced β-arrestin 2 recruitment. This indicates that the proposed naloxone delivery system is adequate for opioid reversal during the naloxone release duration.

How to Achieve High Encapsulation Efficiencies for Macromolecular and Sensitive APIs in Liposomes

This research highlights the capacity of a newly introduced centrifugation process to form liposomes from water-in-fluorocarbon nano-emulsions stabilized with phospholipids to incorporate macromolecular and sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). The encapsulation efficiency of the produced liposomes, incorporating fluorescein-sodium, bovine serum albumin and fluorecein isothiocyanate dextran as model APIs, is determined by applying Vivaspin^® centrifugation filtration and quantified by UV-Vis spectroscopy. It was found that higher densities of the fluorocarbons used as the hydrophobic phase enable a higher encapsulation efficiency and that an efficiency of up to 98% is possible depending on the used phospholipid. Among the engineering aspects of the process, a comparison between different membrane substances was performed. Efficiency increases with a higher phospholipid concentration but decreases with the addition of cholesterol. Due to the higher bending modulus, liposome formation is slowed down by cholesterol during liposome closure leading to a greater leakage of the model API. The encapsulation of bovine serum albumin and dextran, both investigated under different osmotic conditions, shows that an efflux negatively affects the encapsulation efficiency while an influx increases the stability. Overall, the process shows the potential for a very high encapsulation efficiency for macromolecules and future pharmaceutical applications.

Polymers and protein-associated vesicles for the microencapsulation of anthocyanins from grape skins used for food applications

BACKGROUND

Anthocyanins were extracted from grape skins by a combination of ethanolic-ultrasonic assisted methods and were then encapsulated by freeze-drying in soy phosphatidylcholine vesicles with the addition of different polymers, such as pectin, acacia gum, and whey protein isolate. The goal of this research was to microencapsulate anthocyanin compounds extracted from grape skins, to characterize the stability and behavior of the vesicles and then to use them to obtain a new light formulated mayonnaise.

RESULTS

The particle size ranged from 900 nm in the control condition to 250 nm in vesicles loaded with whey proteins. The powders showed higher encapsulation efficiency for all variants, ranging from 81 to 96%. Vibrational spectroscopy revealed better inclusion of anthocyanins in polysaccharide-based coacervates, whereas in protein-based coacervates a possible interaction of anthocyanins with amine groups was observed. The vesicles were tested for in vitro release, and the results confirmed the gradual release of the anthocyanins in both stages of digestion, with a residual content of about 50% in the vesicles. The powders displayed high stability during storage in the dark at 4 °C. The panelists appreciated the new light formulated mayonnaises enriched with 10% dried vesicles compared with the control sample, in particular samples with acacia gum.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that polymer-loaded vesicles presented stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids and have proved successful in obtaining new light enriched mayonnaises. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Co-Microencapsulated Black Rice Anthocyanins and Lactic Acid Bacteria: Evidence on Powders Profile and In Vitro Digestion

Two multi-functional powders, in terms of anthocyanins from black rice (Oryza sativa L.) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus paracasei, L. casei 431^®) were obtained through co-microencapsulation into a biopolymer matrix composed of milk proteins and inulin. Two extracts were obtained using black rice flour as a raw material and hot water and ethanol as solvents. Both powders (called P1 for aqueous extract and P2 for ethanolic extract) proved to be rich sources of valuable bioactives, with microencapsulation efficiency up to 80%, both for anthocyanins and lactic acid bacteria. A higher content of anthocyanins was found in P1, of 102.91 ± 1.83 mg cyanindin-3-O-glucoside (C3G)/g dry weight (DW) when compared with only 27.60 ± 17.36 mg C3G/g DW in P2. The morphological analysis revealed the presence of large, thin, and fragile structures, with different sizes. A different pattern of gastric digestion was observed, with a highly protective effect of the matrix in P1 and a maximum decrease in anthocyanins of approximatively 44% in P2. In intestinal juice, the anthocyanins decreased significantly in P2, reaching a maximum of 97% at the end of digestion; whereas in P1, more than 45% from the initial anthocyanins content remained in the microparticles. Overall, the short-term storage stability test revealed a release of bioactive from P2 and a decrease in P1. The viable cells of lactic acid bacteria after 21 days of storage reached 7 log colony forming units (CFU)/g DW.

Encapsulation of ε-Viniferin into Multi-Lamellar Liposomes: Development of a Rapid, Easy and Cost-Efficient Separation Method to Determine the Encapsulation Efficiency

Onion-type multi-lamellar liposomes (MLLs), composed of a mixture of phosphatidylcholine and Tween 80, were analyzed for their ability to encapsulate ε-Viniferin (εVin), a resveratrol dimer. Their encapsulation efficiency (EE) was measured by UV-VIS spectroscopy using three different separation methods—ultracentrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, and a more original and advantageous one, based on adsorption filtration. The adsorption filtration method consists indeed of using syringe filters to retain the molecule of interest, and not the liposomes as usually performed. The process is rapid (less than 10 min), easy to handle, and inexpensive in terms of sample amount (around 2 mg of liposomes) and equipment (one syringe filter is required). Whatever the separation method, a similar EE value was determined, validating the proposed method. A total of 80% ± 4% of εVin was found to be encapsulated leading to a 6.1% payload, roughly twice those reported for resveratrol-loaded liposomes. Finally, the release kinetics of εVin from MLLs was followed for a 77 day period, demonstrating a slow release of the polyphenol.

In vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of lupeol-loaded galactosylated liposomes

Lupeol liposomes, modified with Gal-PEG-DSPE, were developed following a thin-film dispersion method. Then, the morphology, physicochemical properties, and in vitro release properties of those liposomes were investigated. The scanning electron microscopic images showed that most of the liposomes were spherical particles; they were similar in size and uniformly dispersed. Both lupeol liposomes and Gal-lupeol liposomes exhibited an average particle size of about 100 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 85%. The encapsulation efficiency of lupeol liposome and Gal-lupeol liposome, stored with 15% sucrose as glycoprotein for 6 months, was higher than 80%; although the particle size increased, they remained within 200 nm. The cell-uptake study demonstrated that the Gal-lupeol-liposome uptake efficiency was the highest in HepG2 cells. The HepG2 cells treated with the Gal-lupeol liposomes had higher apoptotic efficiency than the lupeol liposome and free lupeol. After HepG2 cells were treated with Gal-lupeol liposome, the expressions of AKT/mTOR-related proteins (p-AKT308 and p-AKT473) were also significantly reduced than the lupeol-liposome and free lupeol group. The in vivo targeting studies showed that Gal-NR-L exhibited liver-targeting effects on FVB mice. The pharmacodynamic study was performed by transfecting AKT and c-MET via the high-pressure tail vein of FVB mice. After Gal-lupeol-L administration, the liver index and liver weight of mice were less than those non-targeted group. The histopathological study showed that the lobular structure in the mice liver was clearer, the vacuoles were more obvious, and the cytoplasm was more abundant after Gal-lupeol-L administration. Also, the qRT-PCR study showed that AFP, GPC3, and EpCAM mRNA expression levels were significantly lower than those non-targeted lupeol-liposomes.