Immunomodulatory effects of Hericium erinaceus derived polysaccharides are mediated by intestinal immunology

Polysaccharides of Floccularia luteovirens regulate intestinal immune response, and oxidative stress activity through MAPK/Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway in immunosuppressive mice

This study explores the novel immunomodulatory effects of polysaccharides from the rare Floccularia luteovirens, a fungus with significant potential yet unexplored bioactive components, traditionally used in Tibetan medicine. This study employs a wide array of analytical techniques, including HPGPC, HPLC, western blotting, ELISA, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing, to comprehensively investigate FLP1's effects. The main structure of FLP1 was characterized by IF-TR and NMR spectrometry. The structural backbone of FLP1 was →3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → and →2,3)-α-D-Manp-(1→. After immunosuppressed mice treated with FLP1, the findings demonstrated that FLP1 stimulated the production of secretory sIgA and secretion of cytokines (IL-4, TNF-α, and IFN-γ) in the intestine of Cy-treated mice, resulting in the activation of the MAPK pathway. Additionally, FLP1 protected oxidative stress by triggering Nrf2/Keap1 pathways and antioxidation enzymes (SOD, MDA, T-AOC, CAT, and GSH-Px). It also enhanced the intestinal barrier function by regulating the villous height ratio and expression of tight-junction protein. Furthermore, FLP1 remarkably reversed the gut microbiota dysbiosis in immunosuppressed mice by increasing the abundance of Oscilliospiraceae, and Lachnospiraceae, and altered the fecal metabolites by increasing LysoPE (0:0/18:0); 0:0/16:0; 18:1(11Z)/0:0, LysoPG (16:0/0:0), LysoPG 18:1 (2n) PE (14:0/20:1), echinenone, 2-(2-Nitroimidazol-1-yl)-N-(2,2,3,3,3-pentafluoropropyl) acetamide, and suberic acid which is closely related to the immunity function. These results suggested that FLP1 may regulate the intestinal immune response by modulating the gut microbiota and fecal metabolites in immunosuppressed mice thereby activating the immune system.

Mushroom as Prebiotics: a Sustainable Approach for Healthcare

Mushrooms are considered as sustainable foods as they require less effort and can be cultivated on different agro-industrial wastes. Besides, these possess many nutraceuticals for providing health benefits along with supplementing nutrition. The mushrooms are also used as prebiotics for their ability to support beneficial microbes in the gut and inhibit the growth of pathogens. Furthermore, these remain undigested in the upper gut and reach the intestine to replenish the gut microbiota. The mushrooms boost health by inhibiting the binding of pathogenic bacteria, by promoting the growth of specific gut microbiota, producing short chain fatty acids, and regulating lipid metabolism and cancer. Research has been initiated in the commercial formulation of various products such as yogurt and symbiotic capsules. This paper sheds light on health-promoting effect, disease controlling, and regulating effect of mushroom prebiotics. This paper also presented a glimpse of commercialization of mushroom prebiotics. In the future, proper standardization of mushroom-based prebiotic formulations will be available to boost human health.

Structural Characteristics and Immunomodulatory Effects of Melanoidins from Black Garlic

Melanoidins are considered to have several biological activities. In this study, black garlic melanoidins (MLDs) were collected using ethanol solution extraction; 0%, 20%, and 40% ethanol solutions were used for chromatography. Three kinds of melanoidins were produced by macroporous resin, named MLD-0, MLD-20, and MLD-40. The molecular weight was determined, and the infrared and microscopic structures were studied. In addition, Balb/c mice were induced with cyclophosphamide (CTX) to establish an immune deficiency model to evaluate the immune efficacy of black garlic melanoidins (MLDs). The results showed that MLDs restored the proliferation and phagocytosis ability of macrophages, and the proliferation activity of B lymphocytes in the MD group was 63.32% (♀) and 58.11% (♂) higher than that in the CTX group, respectively. In addition, MLDs alleviated the abnormal expression of serum factors such as IFN-γ, IL-10, and TNF-α. 16SrDNA sequencing of intestinal fecal samples of mice showed that MLDs changed the structure and quantity of intestinal flora, and especially that the relative abundance of Bacteroidaceae was significantly increased. The relative abundance of Staphylococcaceae was significantly reduced. These results showed that MLDs improved the diversity of intestinal flora in mice, and improved the adverse state of immune organs and immune cells. The experiments confirm that black garlic melanoidins have potential value in immune activity, which provides an important basis for the development and utilization of melioidosis.

Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Mushrooms

Research progress of active compounds and biological activities of medicinal mushroom-Ganoderma spp., Hericium spp., Phellinus spp., and Cordyceps spp. were summarized systematically. The main active compounds of medicinal mushrooms included are polysaccharides, proteins, triterpenes, meroterpenoids, polyphenols and nitrogen-containing compounds. The biological activities of the compounds cover immunomodulatory activity, antitumor activity, hypoglycemic activity, hepatoprotective activity, and activity of regulation of intellectual flora.

Dietary Polysaccharides as Modulators of the Gut Microbiota Ecosystem: An Update on Their Impact on Health

A polysaccharide is a macromolecule composed of more than ten monosaccharides with a wide distribution and high structural diversity and complexity in nature. Certain polysaccharides are immunomodulators and play key roles in the regulation of immune responses during the progression of some diseases. In addition to stimulating the growth of certain intestinal bacteria, polysaccharides may also promote health benefits by modulating the gut microbiota. In the last years, studies about the triad gut microbiota–polysaccharides–health have increased exponentially. In consequence, in the present review, we aim to summarize recent knowledge about the function of dietary polysaccharides on gut microbiota composition and how these effects affect host health.

Immunomodulatory activity of glycoproteins isolated from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a well-known legume widely used as traditional medicine. This study aimed to characterize the structure and evaluate the immunomodulatory activity of one glycoprotein [crude chickpea glycoprotein-1 (CAG-1)] isolated from chickpea. CAG-1 was extracted with hot alkaline water and purified with DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow and Superdex-200 column chromatography. CAG-1, with a molecular weight of 8,106 Da, contained 57.12% polysaccharide and 35.41% protein. The polysaccharide part was mainly composed of glucose (Glc). The protein part was connected mainly by aspartic (Asp) and glutamic (Glu). The results of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis indicated the presence of α-d-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-d-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-d-Glcp-(1 → . In addition, the sugar chains of the glycoprotein were not hydrolyzed under alkaline conditions, suggesting that the glycoprotein was N-glycosidic; thus, the sugar chain was linked to the protein chain by Asp. An immunological study showed that CAG-1 stimulated the production of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) in RAW 264.7 macrophages in a dose-dependent manner.

Nutraceuticals in the Modulation of the Intestinal Microbiota: Current Status and Future Directions

Pharmaceutical interest in the human intestinal microbiota has increased considerably, because of the increasing number of studies linking the human intestinal microbial ecology to an increasing number of non-communicable diseases. Many efforts at modulating the gut microbiota have been made using probiotics, prebiotics and recently postbiotics. However, there are other, still little-explored opportunities from a pharmaceutical point of view, which appear promising to obtain modifications of the microbiota structure and functions. This review summarizes all in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies demonstrating the possibility to positively modulate the intestinal microbiota by using probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, essential oils, fungus and officinal plants. For the future, clinical studies investigating the ability to impact the intestinal microbiota especially by using fungus, officinal and aromatic plants or their extracts are required. This knowledge could lead to effective microbiome modulations that might support the pharmacological therapy of most non-communicable diseases in a near future.

Restorative Effects of Inulin From Codonopsis pilosula on Intestinal Mucosal Immunity, Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Gut Microbiota of Immunosuppressed Mice

An inulin (CPPF), isolated from a traditional Chinese herbal medicine Codonopsis pilosula, was characterized and demonstrated with potential prebiotic activity in vitro before. Based on its non-digested feature, the intestinal mucosa and microbiota modulatory effects in vivo on immunosuppressed mice were investigated after oral administration of 200, 100 and 50 mg/kg of CPPF for 7 days. It was demonstrated that the secretions of sIgA and mucin 2 (Muc2) in ileum were improved by CPPF, and the anti-inflammatory activities in different intestine parts were revealed. The intestine before colon could be the target active position of CPPF. As a potential prebiotic substance, a gut microbiota restorative effect was also presented by mainly modulating the relative abundance of Eubacteriales, including Oscillibacter, unidentified Ruminococcus and Lachnospiraceae after high-throughput pyrosequencing of V4 region of 16S rRNA analysis. All these results indicated that this main bioactive ingredient inulin from C. pilosula was a medicinal prebiotic with enhancing mucosal immune, anti-inflammatory and microbiota modulatory activities.

The Effect of Flammulina velutipes Polysaccharide on Immunization Analyzed by Intestinal Flora and Proteomics

Proteomics and intestinal flora were used to determine the mechanism of immune modulatory effects of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide on immunosuppressed mice. The results showed that compared with the model group, F. velutipes polysaccharide could increase thymus and spleen indices and improve thymus tissue structure in mice; IL-2 and IL-4 contents were significantly increased and IL-6 and TNF-α contents were significantly decreased; serum acid phosphatase (ACP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) activities were increased (P < 0.05); in the liver, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were increased (P < 0.001), while malondialdehyde (MDA) content was decreased (P < 0.001). Proteomics discovered that F. velutipes polysaccharides may exert immune modulatory effects by participating in signaling pathways such as immune diseases, transport and catabolism, phagosomes and influenza A, regulating the immune-related proteins Transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFRC) and Radical S-adenosyl methionine domain-containing protein 2 (RSAD2), etc. Gut microbial studies showed that F. velutipes polysaccharides could increase the abundance of intestinal flora and improve the flora structure. Compared to the model group, the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and the relative abundance of SCFA-producers Bacteroides and Alloprevotella were increased in the F. velutipes polysaccharide administration group, while Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group and f_Lachnospiraceae_Unclassified decreased in relative abundance. Thus, F. velutipes polysaccharide may play an immunomodulatory role by regulating the intestinal environment and improving the balance of flora.

Macrophage immunomodulatory activity of Acanthopanax senticousus polysaccharide nanoemulsion via activation of P65/JNK/ikkαsignaling pathway and regulation of Th1/Th2 Cytokines

Nanoemulsions (NE) are used widely in pharmaceutical drug formulations and vaccine preparation, and Acanthopanax senticousus polysaccharide (ASPS) is a natural bioactive compound with immunostimulatory activity. Therefore, NE-loaded ASPS is expected to provide immunological enhancement for effective treatment. In the present study, Acanthopanax senticousus polysaccharide (ASPS was encapsulated into nanoemulsions, the resultant ASPS-NE were coated with a negative charge, and the immune enhancement mechanism of these ASPS-NE formulations was analyzed. The immunosuppressive animal models (70 ICR mice, male) for the study were established using cyclophosphamide. In addition, the activation of splenocyte proliferation, phagocytosis of the macrophages, the ratio of CD4⁺ to CD8⁺, the concentrations of the cytokines in serum, Western blot analysis was used for the analysis of the P65/JNK/ikk α signaling pathway in the peritoneal macrophage s. The results revealed that the ASPS-NE could stimulated the proliferation of splenocytes and enhance immunity. The ASPS-NE induced the expression of different cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-6), could activate the expressions of P65, JNK, and ikkα, and regulated the Th1/Th2 cytokines. These findings demonstrated the potential of ASPS-NE formulations for drug delivery and to induce potent and sustained immune responses.

Effects of Two Polysaccharides from Lepidium meyenii (Maca) on Intestinal Immunity and Inflammation in vitro

In our previous studies, two polysaccharides (MC-1 and MC-2) were identified in the roots of maca (Lepidium meyenii). In this study, the effects of these two polysaccharides on intestinal immunity...

Preclinical Bioavailability, Tissue Distribution, and Protein Binding Studies of Erinacine A, a Bioactive Compound from Hericium erinaceus Mycelia Using Validated LC-MS/MS Method

Erinacine A, derived from the mycelia of Hericium erinaceus, has attracted much attention due to its neuroprotective properties. However, very few studies have been conducted on the bioavailability, tissue distribution, and protein binding of erinacine A. This study aimed to investigate the bioavailability, tissue distribution, and protein binding of erinacine A in Sprague-Dawley rats. After oral administration (po) and intravenous administration (iv) of 2.381 g/kg BW of the H. erinaceus mycelia extract (equivalent to 50 mg/kg BW of erinacine A) and 5 mg/kg BW of erinacine A, respectively, the absolute bioavailability of erinacine A was estimated as 24.39%. Erinacine A was detected in brain at 1 h after oral dosing and reached the peak at 8 h. Protein binding assay showed unbound erinacine A fractions in brain to blood ratio is close to unity, supporting passive diffusion as the dominating transport. Feces was the major route for the elimination of erinacine A. This study is the first to show that erinacine A can penetrate the blood-brain barrier of rats by the means of passive diffusion and thus support the development of H. erinaceus mycelia for the improvement of neurohealth.

The biological regulatory activities of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide in mice intestinal microbiota, immune repertoire and heart transcriptome

The effects of a novel Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide (FVP) on intestinal microbiota, immune repertoire and heart transcriptome were investigated in this study. The results showed that FVP treatment could effectively regulate the abundance of colonic microbiota. And FVP exhibited obvious immunoregulatory effect by influencing V gene and J gene fragments usage on TCRα chain. The usage frequency of TRBV1, TRBJ1-6 and TRBJ1-5 were significantly altered, and 41 V-J pairs were identified with obvious difference after FVP treatment. Furthermore, the mRNA of mice heart was analyzed by transcriptome assay. Total 525 genes and 1587 mRNA were significantly changed after FVP treatment. KEGG annotation indicated that the up-regulated mRNA was enriched in 17 pathways including adherens junction, mTOR signaling pathway, insulin signaling pathway, mitophagy, tight junction, PPAR signaling pathway and TNF signaling pathway, etc. Meanwhile, the down-regulated mRNA was gathered in AMPK signaling pathway, metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450, apelin signaling pathway, PPAR signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, insulin signaling pathway, cardiac muscle contraction, adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes, Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis, etc. The great potential exhibited by FVP could make it an ideal candidate as complementary medicine or functional food for promotion of health.

Development of Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Agents-Inspiration from Immunomodulatory Natural Products

Developing broad-spectrum antiviral drugs remains an important issue as viral infections continue to threaten public health. Host-directed therapy is a method that focuses on potential targets in host cells or the body, instead of viral proteins. Its antiviral effects are achieved by disturbing the life cycles of pathogens or modulating immunity. In this review, we focus on the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs that enhance the immune response. Some natural products present antiviral effects mediated by enhancing immunity, and their structures and mechanisms are summarized here. Natural products with immunomodulatory effects are also discussed, although their antiviral effects remain unknown. Given the power of immunity and the feasibility of host-directed therapy, we argue that both of these categories of natural products provide clues that may be beneficial for the discovery of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.

Classification, structure and mechanism of antiviral polysaccharides derived from edible and medicinal fungus

The deficiency of chemical-synthesized antiviral drugs when applied in clinical therapy, such as drug resistance, and the lack of effective antiviral drugs to treat some newly emerging virus infections, such as COVID-19, promote the demand of novelty and safety anti-virus drug candidate from natural functional ingredient. Numerous studies have shown that some polysaccharides sourcing from edible and medicinal fungus (EMFs) exert direct or indirect anti-viral capacities. However, the internal connection of fungus type, polysaccharides structural characteristics, action mechanism was still unclear. Herein, our review focus on the two aspects, on the one hand, we discussed the type of anti-viral EMFs and the structural characteristics of polysaccharides to clarify the structure-activity relationship, on the other hand, the directly or indirectly antiviral mechanism of EMFs polysaccharides, including virus function suppression, immune-modulatory activity, anti-inflammatory activity, regulation of population balance of gut microbiota have been concluded to provide a comprehensive theory basis for better clinical utilization of EMFs polysaccharides as anti-viral agents.

Fruiting body polysaccharides of Hericium erinaceus induce apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells via ROS generation mediating caspase-9-dependent signaling pathways

The fruiting bodies of Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. are commonly used in China in the treatment of digestive system diseases. In this work, the polysaccharides from the fruiting bodies of Hericium erinaceus (HEFPs) were extracted, and their effects on human colorectal cancer cells (HCT-116 and DLD1) were investigated in vitro. Our results showed that HEFPs were mainly composed of arabinose, galactose, glucose, and mannose at a molar ratio of 8.99 : 11.15 : 1.2 : 1.97. They significantly inhibited the growth of these cells by inducing apoptosis by the modulation of Bax and Bcl-2 expression, which in turn induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, leading to the activation of cleaved-caspase-9 and cleaved-caspase-3. These results suggested that HEFPs induced apoptosis via the caspase-9-depedent intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Furthermore, HEFPs increased the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HCT-116 and DLD1 cells. The addition of the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine reduced the ability of HEFPs to trigger the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway, indicating the role of ROS generation in the upstream pathway of HEFP-induced apoptosis. Therefore, the results described in this study could be of interest for further studies in finding functional foods or alternative therapeutic agents against colorectal cancer.

Influence of icariin on inflammation, apoptosis, invasion, and tumor immunity in cervical cancer by reducing the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin pathways

Background

Cervical cancer is a type of the most common gynecology tumor in women of the whole world. Accumulating data have shown that icariin (ICA), a natural compound, has anti-cancer activity in different cancers, including cervical cancer. The study aimed to reveal the antitumor effects and the possible underlying mechanism of ICA in U14 tumor-bearing mice and SiHa cells.

Methods

The antitumor effects of ICA were investigated in vivo and in vitro. The expression of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways were evaluated.

Results

We found that ICA significantly suppressed tumor tissue growth and SiHa cells viability in a dose-dependent manner. Also, ICA enhanced the anti-tumor humoral immunity in vivo. Moreover, ICA significantly improved the composition of the microbiota in mice models. Additionally, the results clarified that ICA significantly inhibited the migration, invasion capacity, and expression levels of TGF-β1, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-17A, IL-10 in SiHa cells. Meanwhile, ICA was revealed to promote the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by down-regulating Ki67, survivin, Bcl-2, c-Myc, and up-regulating P16, P53, Bax levels in vivo and in vitro. For the part of mechanism exploration, we showed that ICA inhibits the inflammation, proliferation, migration, and invasion, as well as promotes apoptosis and immunity in cervical cancer through impairment of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin pathways.

Conclusions

Taken together, ICA could be a potential supplementary agent for cervical cancer treatment.

The use of Hericium erinaceus and Trametes versicolor extracts in supportive treatment in oncology

Substances available in nature with potential therapeutic effects are the subject of research that raises tremendous hopes for new challenges in medicine. Fungi are the most common organisms in the ecosystem and the most interesting in this respect. This review discusses two species of edible fungi, used for centuries in Eastern natural medicine, with the best-documented effect - Hericium erinaceus (He) and Trametes versicolor (Tv). The results of in vivo and in vitro studies conducted on mice and human cell lines demonstrate immunomodulatory, potentially, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and neuroregenerative effects of substances isolated from these fungi. The substances contained in the extracts of He and Tv seem to have immunomodulatory effects that may support chemotherapy. The use of these extracts is justified stronger than the other supportive treat ments based on supplements.

Pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action of Pogostemon cablin Benth: a review

Patchouli ("Guanghuoxiang") or scientifically known as Pogostemon cablin Benth, belonging to the family Lamiaceae, has been used in traditional Chinse medicine (TCM) since the time of the Eastern Han dynasty. In TCM theory, patchouli can treat colds, nausea, fever, headache, and diarrhea. Various bioactive compounds have been identified in patchouli, including terpenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids, organic acids, lignins, glycosides, alcohols, pyrone, and aldehydes. Among the numerous compounds, patchouli alcohol, β-patchoulene, patchoulene epoxide, pogostone, and pachypodol are of great importance. The pharmacological impacts of these compounds include anti-peptic ulcer effect, antimicrobial effect, anti-oxidative effect, anti-inflammatory effect, effect on ischemia/reperfusion injury, analgesic effect, antitumor effect, antidiabetic effect, anti-hypertensive effect, immunoregulatory effect, and others.For this review, we examined publications from the previous five years collected from PubMed, Web of Science, Springer, and the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure databases. This review summarizes the recent progress in phytochemistry, pharmacology, and mechanisms of action and provides a reference for future studies focused on clinical applications of this important plant extract.

Longan pulp polysaccharide protects against cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice by promoting intestinal secretory IgA synthesis

This study aimed to explore the effect of longan pulp polysaccharide (LP) on the systemic immunity and intestinal mucosal immunity of immunosuppressive mice. The synthesis process and secretion of intestinal secretory IgA (SIgA) were investigated. Results showed that LP increased the thymus index, spleen index, and serum IgA level in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-treated mice. SIgA secretion in the intestinal lumen was increased by LP as well. The underlying mechanism comes down to the facts as follow: LP increased intestinal cytokines expression and TGFβRII that is associated with pathways of IgA class switch recombination (CSR). By improving protein expression of mucosal addressin cell-adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) and integrin α4β7, LP was beneficial to gut homing of IgA+ plasma cells. LP increased IgA, polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR), and secretory component (SC) to fortify the SIgA secretion. This study suggested that moderate consumption of LP is helpful for improving systemic immunity and intestinal mucosal immunity via promotion of intestinal SIgA to strengthen the mucosal barrier.

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) oligopeptides regulate immune responses via Th cell stimulation, cytokine secretion and antibody production

This study aimed to observe the immunomodulatory effects of oligopeptides derived from jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) (JOPs). 200 female BALB/c mice in five groups were respectively given deionized water (control), whey protein (0.20 g per kg body weight (BW)) and JOPs at doses of 0.20, 0.40, and 0.80 g per kg BW by intragastric administration on a daily basis. 7 tests were conducted to determine the immunomodulatory effects of JOPs on immune organ indexes, cellular and humoral immune responses, macrophage phagocytosis, and natural killer (NK) cell activity. Spleen T lymphocyte sub-populations and serum cytokine and immunoglobulin levels were tested to study how JOPs improved the immune system. We found that JOPs could significantly enhance innate and adaptive immune responses in mice by the improvement of cell-mediated and humoral immunity, macrophage phagocytosis capacity and NK cell activity. The immunomodulatory effects may be based on increased T and Th cell percentages, serum interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, production of immunoglobulin (Ig) M, IgG, and IgA, and depressed interferon (IFN)-γ secretion. These results suggest that dietary JOPs could be valuable as potential immunomodulators.

Structural characterization of enzymatic modification of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide and its immune-enhancement activity

In this study, the enzyme degradation of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide (HEP) was successfully modified with endo-rhamnosidase to obtain the enzymatic hydrolysis of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide product (EHEP). The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic particle microscopy (AFM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and particle size distribution were used to characterize polysaccharides. In vitro, EHEP significantly enhanced the phagocytosis, NO, CD40 and CD86 by macrophage than HEP. In vivo, female Balb/c mice were injected respectively with EHEP and HEP after administrated with cyclophosphamide, once a day for 7 days. On days 11, the morphology and structure of jejunal sections, immunofluorescence of spleen and peritoneal macrophages were determined. These results indicated that the enzymatic hydrolysis product could enhance the activation of peritoneal macrophages, and enhance the immunomodulation function of HEP. This study demonstrated that enzymatic modification was an effective method to improve the activities of HEP, and could be developed as a potential technology for use in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industry.

Rethinking the impact of RG-I mainly from fruits and vegetables on dietary health

Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) pectin is composed of backbone of repeating disaccharide units →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→ and neutral sugar side-chains mainly consisting of arabinose and galactose having variable types of linkages. However, since traditional pectin extraction methods damages the RG-I structure, the characteristics and health effects of RG-I remains unclear. Recently, many studies have focused on RG-I, which is often more active than the homogalacturonan (HG) portion of pectic polysaccharides. In food products, RG-I is common to fruits and vegetables and possesses many health benefits. This timely and comprehensive review describes the many different facets of RG-I, including its dietary sources, history, metabolism and potential functionalities, all of which have been compiled to establish a platform for taking full advantage of the functional value of RG-I pectin.

A novel polysaccharide obtained from Craterellus cornucopioides enhances immunomodulatory activity in immunosuppressive mice models via regulation of the TLR4-NF-κB pathway

The immunoregulatory effect of a novel Craterellus cornucopioides polysaccharide (CCP) with a triple-helix structure on immunosuppressive BALB/c mice models was investigated; moreover, the immune response of BALB/c mice models in the preventive and therapeutic treatment groups treated with CCP was explored, and its molecular mechanism was elucidated. It was found that the BALB/c mice models in the preventive groups treated with CCP (120 and 240 mg kg^-1 d^-1) had better immunoregulatory activity. The spleen and thymus weight indices of the BALB/c mice models were significantly increased, and the histopathological analysis indicated a protective function of CCP against the immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide (CTX). Moreover, CCP displayed definite and clear synergistic effects on the T- or B-lymphocyte proliferation induced by ConA or LPS, respectively, promoted the natural killer (NK) cell activity and significantly increased phagocytic activity to activate peritoneal macrophages in immunosuppressive mice. The western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) results provided comprehensive evidence that CCP could upregulate the protein expression of the G-protein-coupled cell membrane receptor TLR4 and the production of its downstream protein kinases (TRAF6, TK1, p-IKKα/β and NF-κB p50); this, in turn, enhanced the production of cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-α) through both preventive and therapeutic treatments via regulation of the TLR4-NFκB pathway in the peritoneal macrophage of immunosuppressive mice.

Naked Oat (Avena nuda L.) Oligopeptides:Immunomodulatory Effects on Innate and AdaptiveImmunity in Mice via Cytokine Secretion, AntibodyProduction, and Th Cells Stimulation

The study aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory activity of oligopeptides derived from oat (Avena nuda L.) (OOPs). Healthy female BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to five groups, given deionized water (control) and 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg body weight (BW) of OOPs daily by intragastric administration. Seven assays were performed to determine the immunomodulatory effects of OOPs on immune organ ratios, cellular and humoral immune responses, macrophage phagocytosis, and natural killer (NK) cell activity. Spleen T lymphocyte subpopulations (by flow cytometry), serum cytokine and immunoglobulin levels (by multiplex sandwich immunoassays) were determined to evaluate how OOPs affected the immune system. Our results showed that OOPs could significantly improve innate and adaptive immune responses in mice through the enhancement of cell-mediated and humoral immunity, macrophage phagocytosis capacity, and NK cell activity. We concluded that the immunomodulatory effects might be attributed to increased T and Th cell percentages, serum interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-1 α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) secretions as well as immunoglobulin (Ig) A, IgG, and IgM productions. These results indicate that dietary OOPs could be considered as promising immunomodulators with dosages ranging from 0.25 to 2.0 g/kg BW.

Absolute Bioavailability, Tissue Distribution, and Excretion of Erinacine S in Hericium erinaceus Mycelia

Erinacine S, so far known to have been produced only in Hericium erinaceus mycelia, has just recently been discovered and is able to reduce amyloid plaque growth and improve neurogenesis in aged brain of rats. However, few investigations have been conducted on the absorption, distribution, and excretion study of Erinacine S. This study aimed to investigate the absolute bioavailability, tissue distribution, and excretion of Erinacine S in H. Erinaceus mycelia in eight-week old Sprague-Dawley rats. After oral administration and intravenous administration of 2.395 g/kg body weight of the H. erinaceus mycelia extract (equivalent to 50 mg/kg body weight Erinacine S) and 5 mg/kg of Erinacine S, respectively, the absolute bioavailability was estimated as 15.13%. In addition, Erinacine S was extensively distributed in organs such as brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The maximum concentration of Erinacine S was observed in the stomach, 2 h after the oral administration of H. erinaceus mycelia extract, whereas the maximum amount of Erinacine S found in other tissues were seen after 8 h. Total amount of unconverted Erinacine S eliminated in feces and urine in 24 h was 0.1% of the oral dosage administrated. This study is the first to show that Erinacine S can penetrate the blood–brain barrier of rats and thus support the development of H. erinaceus mycelia, for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Effects of Atmospheric and Room Temperature Plasma (ARTP) Mutagenesis on Physicochemical Characteristics and Immune Activity In Vitro of Hericium erinaceus Polysaccharides

The polysaccharide is the main active substance contained in Hericium erinaceus and is commonly used in the treatment of neurasthenia, tumors, and digestive diseases. Six intracellular polysaccharide components were obtained from H. erinaceus fruiting bodies cultivated by ARTP (atmospheric and room temperature plasma) mutagenic strain (321) and the original strain (0605), respectively. This study was designed to investigate the physicochemical characteristics of these polysaccharide components and their potential immunomodulatory activities on RAW264.7 macrophages. The results showed that the yield of fruiting body cultivated by mutated strain increased by 22% and the polysaccharide content improved by 16% compared with the original one owing to ARTP mutagenesis. The molecular weight distribution and the monosaccharide compositions of polysaccharide components from H. erinaceus induced by ARTP mutagenesis were significantly different from that of the original one. The NO, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1β, and TNF-α production activities of macrophages were enhanced by stimulation of 20% ethanol precipitated polysaccharides from H. erinaceus induced by ARTP mutagenesis. These results indicated that ARTP is an efficient and practical method for high polysaccharide content breeding of the H. erinaceus strain and this provided a reference for obtaining high quality resources and healthy product development from H. erinaceus.

The impacts of natural polysaccharides on intestinal microbiota and immune responses – a review

This paper presents a comprehensive review of the impacts of natural polysaccharides on gut microbiota and immune responses as well as their interactions.

Immune-enhancing effects of polysaccharides from purple sweet potato

Immune-enhancing effects of three kinds of purple sweet potato polysaccharides (PSPPs) including water-soluble polysaccharide (WSP), dilute alkali-soluble polysaccharide (DASP) and concentrated alkali-soluble polysaccharide (CASP) were evaluated. Scanning electron microscope analysis showed that all PSPPs could stimulate the formation of microvilli-like structures in cellular surfaces, which was possibly related to activation of macrophages. Neutral red uptake assay showed that PSPPs could increase the phagocytic activity of cells. High dose (400 μg/mL) of PSPPs could notably augment the level of nitric oxide (NO). ELISA analysis revealed that 200 and 400 μg/mL of PSPPs distinctly elevated the production of IL-1β. Cells received 200 and 400 μg/mL of WSP as well as 400 μg/mL of DASP exhibited higher level of IL-6. Results of animal experiments showed that WSP treatment (400 mg/kg) could promote the secretions of IgA, IgG, IgM and sIgA in both normal and immunosuppressed mice. Moreover, CASP treatment (400 mg/kg) elevated the production of IgM in the serum of normal and immunosuppressive mice, while DASP (400 mg/kg) only improved the secretion of IgM in normal mice. In summary, all three polysaccharides can stimulate immune responses of macrophages and positively regulate adaptive immunity by enhancing the production of immunoglobulins in mice.

Medicinal mushrooms as an attractive new source of natural compounds for future cancer therapy

Medicinal mushrooms have been used throughout the history of mankind for treatment of various diseases including cancer. Nowadays they have been intensively studied in order to reveal the chemical nature and mechanisms of action of their biomedical capacity. Targeted treatment of cancer, non-harmful for healthy tissues, has become a desired goal in recent decades and compounds of fungal origin provide a vast reservoir of potential innovational drugs. Here, on example of four mushrooms common for use in Asian and Far Eastern folk medicine we demonstrate the complex and multilevel nature of their anticancer potential, basing upon different groups of compounds that can simultaneously target diverse biological processes relevant for cancer treatment, focusing on targeted approaches specific to malignant tissues. We show that some aspects of fungotherapy of tumors are studied relatively well, while others are still waiting to be fully unraveled. We also pay attention to the cancer types that are especially susceptible to the fungal treatments.

Immunomodulatory effect of Schisandra polysaccharides in cyclophosphamide-induced immunocompromised mice

As a strategy to prevent the well-known immunosuppressant effects of cyclophosphamide (Cyp), the immunomodulatory effects of the polysaccharide extract of the fruit of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. were investigated in the present study. The crude Schisandra polysaccharide (SCP) was obtained by water extraction and alcohol precipitation methods. The total carbohydrate, uronic acid and protein contents were determined using the phenol-sulfuric acid, m-hydroxydiphenyl and Bradford method, respectively. The monosaccharide composition of SCP was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. ICR mice were randomly divided into control, model, low-dose SCP (0.4 mg/10 g), medium-dose SCP (0.8 mg/10 g) and high-dose SCP (1.6 mg/10 g) groups. The mice in the SCP groups were intragastrically administered SCP once a day for 21 days and those from the control and model groups were administered the same volume of distilled water. Subsequently, the mice in the model and SCP groups were intraperitoneally injected with Cyp (20 mg/kg) once a day for 5 days. The mouse leukocyte count in the peripheral blood as well as thymus and spleen indexes were determined, and the phagocytic function of macrophages was estimated using a carbon clearance test. The thymus and spleen were histomorphologically observed. The levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ were measured by ELISA. Furthermore, antibody formation and spleen lymphocyte proliferation were measured by the serum hemolysin and the MTT method, respectively. The apoptotic rate of splenic lymphocytes was determined by flow cytometric analysis. The results indicated that SCP prevents Cyp-induced impairment of the cellular, humoral and non-specific immunity, and may be an auxiliary immune enhancer for the prevention of immune hypofunction.

Antitumor activity of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides with different molecular weights: an in vitro and in vivo study

The antitumor activity of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) has been reported, but the structure–bioactivity relationship has still not been fully elucidated. In this study, four water-soluble LBP fractions with serial different molecular weights (MWs) were separated from LBP, designated LBP-2, LBP-3, LBP-4, and LBP-5. After a characteristic analysis, the relationship between MW and antitumor activity of LBP was investigated both in vitro using murine hepatoma H22 cells and in vivo using H22 tumor-bearing mice. In vitro, the results showed that all the LBP fractions had significant inhibition on H22 cells, in which LBP-3 had the best activity. LBP-3 could induce apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane potential destruction, and S phase arrest in H22 cells. In vivo, the results showed that LBP-2, LBP-3, LBP-4, and LBP-5 could inhibit the tumor growth in H22 tumor-bearing mice by 18.18%, 37.97%, 9.09%, and 14.44%, respectively. However, only LBP-3 was able to decrease the tumor weight significantly in H22 tumor-bearing mice. Meanwhile, all the LBP fractions did not show significant toxicity to murine splenocytes, thymus, and spleen. Taken together, these results demonstrated that the antitumor activity of LBP was closely related to its MW, and LBP-3 with medium MW (40–350 kDa) was the main active fraction.