1
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Jethwa RB, Mondal S, Pant B, Freunberger SA. To DISP or Not? The Far-Reaching Reaction Mechanisms Underpinning Lithium-Air Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202316476. [PMID: 38095355 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202316476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The short history of research on Li-O2 batteries has seen a remarkable number of mechanistic U-turns over the years. From the initial use of carbonate electrolytes, that were then found to be entirely unsuitable, to the belief that (su)peroxide was solely responsible for degradation, before the more reactive singlet oxygen was found to form, to the hypothesis that capacity depends on a competing surface/solution mechanism before a practically exclusive solution mechanism was identified. Herein, we argue for an ever-fresh look at the reported data without bias towards supposedly established explanations. We explain how the latest findings on rate and capacity limits, as well as the origin of side reactions, are connected via the disproportionation (DISP) step in the (dis)charge mechanism. Therefrom, directions emerge for the design of electrolytes and mediators on how to suppress side reactions and to enable high rate and high reversible capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh B Jethwa
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Soumyadip Mondal
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Bhargavi Pant
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Stefan A Freunberger
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
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2
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Mondal S, Jethwa RB, Pant B, Hauschild R, Freunberger SA. Singlet oxygen formation in non-aqueous oxygen redox chemistry: direct spectroscopic evidence for formation pathways and reliability of chemical probes. Faraday Discuss 2024; 248:175-189. [PMID: 37750344 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00088e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Singlet oxygen (1O2) formation is now recognised as a key aspect of non-aqueous oxygen redox chemistry. For identifying 1O2, chemical trapping via 9,10-dimethylanthracene (DMA) to form the endoperoxide (DMA-O2) has become the main method due to its sensitivity, selectivity, and ease of use. While DMA has been shown to be selective for 1O2, rather than forming DMA-O2 with a wide variety of potentially reactive O-containing species, false positives might hypothetically be obtained in the presence of previously overlooked species. Here, we first provide unequivocal direct spectroscopic proof via the 1O2-specific near-infrared (NIR) emission at 1270 nm for the previously proposed 1O2 formation pathways, which centre around superoxide disproportionation. We then show that peroxocarbonates, common intermediates in metal-O2 and metal carbonate electrochemistry, do not produce false-positive DMA-O2. Moreover, we identify a previously unreported 1O2-forming pathway through the reaction of CO2 with superoxide. Overall, we provide unequivocal proof for 1O2 formation in non-aqueous oxygen redox chemistry and show that chemical trapping with DMA is a reliable method to assess 1O2 formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumyadip Mondal
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | - Rajesh B Jethwa
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | - Bhargavi Pant
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | - Robert Hauschild
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | - Stefan A Freunberger
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
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3
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Matsuda S, Yasukawa E, Kimura S, Yamaguchi S, Uosaki K. Evaluation of performance metrics for high energy density rechargeable lithium-oxygen batteries. Faraday Discuss 2024; 248:341-354. [PMID: 37772329 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00082f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
The demand for practical implementation of rechargeable lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs) has grown owing to their extremely high theoretical energy density. However, the factors determining the performance of cell-level high energy density LOBs remain unclear. In this study, LOBs with a stacked-cell configuration were fabricated and their performance evaluated under different experimental conditions to clarify the unique degradation phenomenon under lean-electrolyte and high areal capacity conditions. First, the effect of the electrolyte amount against areal capacity ratio (E/C) on the battery performance was evaluated, revealing a complicated voltage profile for an LOB cell operated under high areal capacity conditions. Second, the impact of different kinds of gas-diffusion layer materials on the "sudden death" phenomenon during the charging process was investigated. The results obtained in the present study reveal the importance of these factors when evaluating the performance metrics of LOBs, including cycle life, and round-trip energy efficiency. We believe that adopting a suitable experimental setup with appropriate technological parameters is crucial for accurately interpreting the complicated phenomenon in LOBs with cell-level high energy density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoichi Matsuda
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental Materials, National Institute for Material Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
- NIMS-SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development Center, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Eiki Yasukawa
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental Materials, National Institute for Material Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
- NIMS-SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development Center, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Shin Kimura
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental Materials, National Institute for Material Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
- NIMS-SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development Center, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Shoji Yamaguchi
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental Materials, National Institute for Material Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
- NIMS-SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development Center, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Kohei Uosaki
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental Materials, National Institute for Material Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
- NIMS-SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development Center, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
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4
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Yan Z, Reynolds KG, Sun R, Shin Y, Thorarinsdottir AE, Gonzalez MI, Kudisch B, Galli G, Nocera DG. Oxidation Chemistry of Bicarbonate and Peroxybicarbonate: Implications for Carbonate Management in Energy Storage. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:22213-22221. [PMID: 37751528 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c08144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Carbonate formation presents a major challenge to energy storage applications based on low-temperature CO2 electrolysis and recyclable metal-air batteries. While direct electrochemical oxidation of (bi)carbonate represents a straightforward route for carbonate management, knowledge of the feasibility and mechanisms of direct oxidation is presently lacking. Herein, we report the isolation and characterization of the bis(triphenylphosphine)iminium salts of bicarbonate and peroxybicarbonate, thus enabling the examination of their oxidation chemistry. Infrared spectroelectrochemistry combined with time-resolved infrared spectroscopy reveals that the photoinduced oxidation of HCO3- by an Ir(III) photoreagent results in the generation of the short-lived bicarbonate radical in less than 50 ns. The highly acidic bicarbonate radical undergoes proton transfer with HCO3- to furnish the carbonate radical anion and H2CO3, leading to the eventual release of CO2 and H2O, thus accounting for the appearance of H2O and CO2 in both electrochemical and photochemical oxidation experiments. The back reaction of the carbonate radical subsequently oxidizes the Ir(II) photoreagent, leading to carbonate. In the absence of this back reaction, dimerization of the carbonate radical provides entry into peroxybicarbonate, which we show undergoes facile oxidation to O2 and CO2. Together, the results reported identify tangible pathways for the design of catalysts for the management of carbonate in energy storage applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifei Yan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Kristopher G Reynolds
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Rui Sun
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Yongjin Shin
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Agnes E Thorarinsdottir
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Miguel I Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Bryan Kudisch
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Giulia Galli
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Daniel G Nocera
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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5
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Ono M, Saengkaew J, Matsuda S. Poor Cycling Performance of Rechargeable Lithium-Oxygen Batteries under Lean-Electrolyte and High-Areal-Capacity Conditions: Role of Carbon Electrode Decomposition. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2300896. [PMID: 37338292 PMCID: PMC10460881 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202300896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
There is growing demand for practical implementation of lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs) due to their superior potential for achieving higher energy density than that of conventional lithium-ion batteries. Although recent studies demonstrate the stable operation of 500 Wh kg-1 -class LOBs, their cycle life remains fancy. For further improving the cycle performance of LOBs, the complicated chemical degradation mechanism in LOBs must be elucidated. In particular, the quantitative contribution of each cell component to degradation phenomenon in LOBs under lean-electrolyte and high-areal-capacity conditions should be clarified. In the present study, the mass balance of the positive-electrode reaction in a LOB under lean-electrolyte and high-areal-capacity conditions is quantitatively evaluated. The results reveal carbon electrode decomposition to be the critical factor that prevents the prolonged cycling of the LOB. Notably, the carbon electrode decomposition occur during charging at voltages higher than 3.8 V through the electrochemical decomposition of solid-state side products. The findings of this study highlight the significance of improving the stability of the carbon electrode and/or forming Li2 O2 , which can decompose at voltages lower than 3.8 V, to realize high-energy-density LOBs with long cycle life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manai Ono
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental MaterialsNational Institute for Material Science1‐1 NamikiTsukubaIbaraki305‐0044Japan
| | - Jittraporn Saengkaew
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental MaterialsNational Institute for Material Science1‐1 NamikiTsukubaIbaraki305‐0044Japan
| | - Shoichi Matsuda
- Center for Green Research on Energy and Environmental MaterialsNational Institute for Material Science1‐1 NamikiTsukubaIbaraki305‐0044Japan
- NIMS‐SoftBank Advanced Technologies Development CenterNational Institute for Materials Science1‐1 NamikiTsukubaIbaraki305‐0044Japan
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6
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Ahn S, Zor C, Yang S, Lagnoni M, Dewar D, Nimmo T, Chau C, Jenkins M, Kibler AJ, Pateman A, Rees GJ, Gao X, Adamson P, Grobert N, Bertei A, Johnson LR, Bruce PG. Why charging Li-air batteries with current low-voltage mediators is slow and singlet oxygen does not explain degradation. Nat Chem 2023:10.1038/s41557-023-01203-3. [PMID: 37264102 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01203-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Although Li-air rechargeable batteries offer higher energy densities than lithium-ion batteries, the insulating Li2O2 formed during discharge hinders rapid, efficient re-charging. Redox mediators are used to facilitate Li2O2 oxidation; however, fast kinetics at a low charging voltage are necessary for practical applications and are yet to be achieved. We investigate the mechanism of Li2O2 oxidation by redox mediators. The rate-limiting step is the outer-sphere one-electron oxidation of Li2O2 to LiO2, which follows Marcus theory. The second step is dominated by LiO2 disproportionation, forming mostly triplet-state O2. The yield of singlet-state O2 depends on the redox potential of the mediator in a way that does not correlate with electrolyte degradation, in contrast to earlier views. Our mechanistic understanding explains why current low-voltage mediators (<+3.3 V) fail to deliver high rates (the maximum rate is at +3.74 V) and suggests important mediator design strategies to deliver sufficiently high rates for fast charging at potentials closer to the thermodynamic potential of Li2O2 oxidation (+2.96 V).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunyhik Ahn
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ceren Zor
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sixie Yang
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Marco Lagnoni
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Daniel Dewar
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tammy Nimmo
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Chloe Chau
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Max Jenkins
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Alexander J Kibler
- Nottingham Applied Materials and Interfaces Group, School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Gregory J Rees
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Xiangwen Gao
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Paul Adamson
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Nicole Grobert
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Antonio Bertei
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Lee R Johnson
- Nottingham Applied Materials and Interfaces Group, School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Peter G Bruce
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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7
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Wu Z, Tian Y, Chen H, Wang L, Qian S, Wu T, Zhang S, Lu J. Evolving aprotic Li-air batteries. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:8045-8101. [PMID: 36047454 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00003b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Lithium-air batteries (LABs) have attracted tremendous attention since the proposal of the LAB concept in 1996 because LABs have a super high theoretical/practical specific energy and an infinite supply of redox-active materials, and are environment-friendly. However, due to the lack of critical electrode materials and a thorough understanding of the chemistry of LABs, the development of LABs entered a germination period before 2010, when LABs research mainly focused on the development of air cathodes and carbonate-based electrolytes. In the growing period, i.e., from 2010 to the present, the investigation focused more on systematic electrode design, fabrication, and modification, as well as the comprehensive selection of electrolyte components. Nevertheless, over the past 25 years, the development of LABs has been full of retrospective steps and breakthroughs. In this review, the evolution of LABs is illustrated along with the constantly emerging design, fabrication, modification, and optimization strategies. At the end, perspectives and strategies are put forward for the development of future LABs and even other metal-air batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Wu
- Center for Catalysis and Clean Energy, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
| | - Yuhui Tian
- Center for Catalysis and Clean Energy, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
| | - Hao Chen
- Center for Catalysis and Clean Energy, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
| | - Liguang Wang
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China. .,Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, Quzhou 324000, China
| | - Shangshu Qian
- Center for Catalysis and Clean Energy, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
| | - Tianpin Wu
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
| | - Shanqing Zhang
- Center for Catalysis and Clean Energy, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
| | - Jun Lu
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
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8
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Duan K, Ning J, Zhou L, Wang S, Wang Q, Liu J, Guo Z. Synergistic Inorganic-Organic Dual-Additive Electrolytes Enable Practical High-Voltage Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:10447-10456. [PMID: 35179877 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c24808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Severe electrolyte decomposition under high voltage can easily lead to degradation of the performance of lithium-ion batteries, which has become a major obstacle to the practical application of high-energy-density batteries. To solve these problems, a dual-functional electrolyte additive comprising inorganic lithium difluorophosphate (LiDFP) and organic 1,3,6-hexanetrinitrile (HTN) was designed and employed to improve the performance of high-voltage Si@C/LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 full batteries. LiDFP with a lower LUMO energy than the solvent in the electrolyte takes priority in reduction, facilitating the formation of a dense and stable film on the anode, effectively suppressing side reactions of the electrolyte and aiding tolerance to the volume expansion of the Si@C electrode. Additionally, the lower HOMO energy of HTN can improve the oxidation resistance of the electrolyte, with the C≡N functional group of HTN helping to remove the trace water and the byproduct HF from the electrolyte. The Si@C/LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 full battery with 1 wt % LiDFP and 1 wt % HTN in 1.0 M LiPF6 traditional electrolyte delivers high capacity retention of 91.57% after 150 cycles at 0.2C, compared to 34.58% capacity retention without any additives. Moreover, the Coulombic efficiency of batteries with electrolyte additives can reach 99.75% on average, compared to their counterparts at ∼96.54%. The synergistic effect of LiDFP and HTN provides a promising strategy for enhancing the performance of high-voltage batteries for practical industrialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaijia Duan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry & Ministry of Educational Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Jingrong Ning
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry & Ministry of Educational Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Lai Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry & Ministry of Educational Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Shiquan Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry & Ministry of Educational Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Qin Wang
- Hubei WanRun New Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Shiyan 442500, China
| | - Jianwen Liu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry & Ministry of Educational Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
- Hubei WanRun New Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Shiyan 442500, China
| | - Zaiping Guo
- School of Chemical Engineering & Advanced Materials, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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9
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Schürmann A, Luerßen B, Mollenhauer D, Janek J, Schröder D. Singlet Oxygen in Electrochemical Cells: A Critical Review of Literature and Theory. Chem Rev 2021; 121:12445-12464. [PMID: 34319075 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Rechargeable metal/O2 batteries have long been considered a promising future battery technology in automobile and stationary applications. However, they suffer from poor cyclability and rapid degradation. A recent hypothesis is the formation of singlet oxygen (1O2) as the root cause of these issues. Validation, evaluation, and understanding of the formation of 1O2 are therefore essential for improving metal/O2 batteries. We review literature and use Marcus theory to discuss the possibility of singlet oxygen formation in metal/O2 batteries as a product from (electro)chemical reactions. We conclude that experimental evidence is yet not fully conclusive, and side reactions can play a major role in verifying the existence of singlet oxygen. Following an in-depth analysis based on Marcus theory, we conclude that 1O2 can only originate from a chemical step. A direct electrochemical generation, as proposed by others, can be excluded on the basis of theoretical arguments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Schürmann
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Center for Materials Research (LaMa), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 16, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Bjoern Luerßen
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Center for Materials Research (LaMa), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 16, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Doreen Mollenhauer
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Center for Materials Research (LaMa), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 16, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Janek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Center for Materials Research (LaMa), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 16, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Daniel Schröder
- Institute of Energy and Process Systems Engineering (InES), Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19B, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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10
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Wang T, Pan X, Chen J, Chen Y. Critical CO 2 Concentration for Practical Lithium-Air Batteries. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:4799-4804. [PMID: 33998813 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Li-air battery is expected to become the next generation of the energy storage system because of its high theoretical energy density of 3500 Wh/kg (based on Li2O2 formation at the cathode). CO2 (∼300 ppm) in the air is regarded as an impurity for cathode reactions, because it can lead to the formation of Li2CO3, which increases the overcharge potentials, decreases energy efficiency, and gives rise to the serious decomposition of battery components. However, the impact of a low concentration of CO2 (<1000 ppm) on cell performance has not been addressed. In this work, we quantitatively characterized and analyzed the impact of a low concentration of CO2 on the electrochemical performance of Li-air batteries to investigate the tolerance of Li-air batteries to CO2. The discharge capacities and cyclability of the batteries with CO2 below 100 ppm are similar to those without CO2. The batteries with 0, 50, and 100 ppm of CO2 delivered 85, 88, and 83 cycles, respectively. At the same time, the critical byproduct Li2CO3 was quantified, and its effect on batteries is analyzed by in situ electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with a distribution of relaxation time (DRT) calculation. This study promises a theoretical basis for developing CO2 removal materials and devices for Li-air batteries in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211816, China
| | - Xiaoyan Pan
- Shandong Chambroad Petrochemicals Co., Ltd., Boxing, Shandong 256500, China
| | - Juan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211816, China
| | - Yuhui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211816, China
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai 200050, China
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11
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In situ small-angle X-ray scattering reveals solution phase discharge of Li-O 2 batteries with weakly solvating electrolytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2021893118. [PMID: 33785597 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021893118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrodepositing insulating lithium peroxide (Li2O2) is the key process during discharge of aprotic Li-O2 batteries and determines rate, capacity, and reversibility. Current understanding states that the partition between surface adsorbed and dissolved lithium superoxide governs whether Li2O2 grows as a conformal surface film or larger particles, leading to low or high capacities, respectively. However, better understanding governing factors for Li2O2 packing density and capacity requires structural sensitive in situ metrologies. Here, we establish in situ small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS) as a suitable method to record the Li2O2 phase evolution with atomic to submicrometer resolution during cycling a custom-built in situ Li-O2 cell. Combined with sophisticated data analysis, SAXS allows retrieving rich quantitative structural information from complex multiphase systems. Surprisingly, we find that features are absent that would point at a Li2O2 surface film formed via two consecutive electron transfers, even in poorly solvating electrolytes thought to be prototypical for surface growth. All scattering data can be modeled by stacks of thin Li2O2 platelets potentially forming large toroidal particles. Li2O2 solution growth is further justified by rotating ring-disk electrode measurements and electron microscopy. Higher discharge overpotentials lead to smaller Li2O2 particles, but there is no transition to an electronically passivating, conformal Li2O2 coating. Hence, mass transport of reactive species rather than electronic transport through a Li2O2 film limits the discharge capacity. Provided that species mobilities and carbon surface areas are high, this allows for high discharge capacities even in weakly solvating electrolytes. The currently accepted Li-O2 reaction mechanism ought to be reconsidered.
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12
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Kwak WJ, Rosy, Sharon D, Xia C, Kim H, Johnson LR, Bruce PG, Nazar LF, Sun YK, Frimer AA, Noked M, Freunberger SA, Aurbach D. Lithium-Oxygen Batteries and Related Systems: Potential, Status, and Future. Chem Rev 2020; 120:6626-6683. [PMID: 32134255 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C requires a drastic reduction in CO2 emissions across many sectors of the world economy. Batteries are vital to this endeavor, whether used in electric vehicles, to store renewable electricity, or in aviation. Present lithium-ion technologies are preparing the public for this inevitable change, but their maximum theoretical specific capacity presents a limitation. Their high cost is another concern for commercial viability. Metal-air batteries have the highest theoretical energy density of all possible secondary battery technologies and could yield step changes in energy storage, if their practical difficulties could be overcome. The scope of this review is to provide an objective, comprehensive, and authoritative assessment of the intensive work invested in nonaqueous rechargeable metal-air batteries over the past few years, which identified the key problems and guides directions to solve them. We focus primarily on the challenges and outlook for Li-O2 cells but include Na-O2, K-O2, and Mg-O2 cells for comparison. Our review highlights the interdisciplinary nature of this field that involves a combination of materials chemistry, electrochemistry, computation, microscopy, spectroscopy, and surface science. The mechanisms of O2 reduction and evolution are considered in the light of recent findings, along with developments in positive and negative electrodes, electrolytes, electrocatalysis on surfaces and in solution, and the degradative effect of singlet oxygen, which is typically formed in Li-O2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Jin Kwak
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea.,Energy & Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Rosy
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Daniel Sharon
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States.,Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Chun Xia
- Department of Chemistry and the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Hun Kim
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Lee R Johnson
- School of Chemistry and GSK Carbon Neutral Laboratory for Sustainable Chemistry, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, U.K
| | - Peter G Bruce
- Departments of Materials and Chemistry, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, U.K
| | - Linda F Nazar
- Department of Chemistry and the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Yang-Kook Sun
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Aryeh A Frimer
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Malachi Noked
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Stefan A Freunberger
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria.,Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Doron Aurbach
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
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13
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Liu T, Vivek JP, Zhao EW, Lei J, Garcia-Araez N, Grey CP. Current Challenges and Routes Forward for Nonaqueous Lithium-Air Batteries. Chem Rev 2020; 120:6558-6625. [PMID: 32090540 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nonaqueous lithium-air batteries have garnered considerable research interest over the past decade due to their extremely high theoretical energy densities and potentially low cost. Significant advances have been achieved both in the mechanistic understanding of the cell reactions and in the development of effective strategies to help realize a practical energy storage device. By drawing attention to reports published mainly within the past 8 years, this review provides an updated mechanistic picture of the lithium peroxide based cell reactions and highlights key remaining challenges, including those due to the parasitic processes occurring at the reaction product-electrolyte, product-cathode, electrolyte-cathode, and electrolyte-anode interfaces. We introduce the fundamental principles and critically evaluate the effectiveness of the different strategies that have been proposed to mitigate the various issues of this chemistry, which include the use of solid catalysts, redox mediators, solvating additives for oxygen reaction intermediates, gas separation membranes, etc. Recently established cell chemistries based on the superoxide, hydroxide, and oxide phases are also summarized and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China.,Chemistry Department, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - J Padmanabhan Vivek
- Chemistry Department, University of Southampton, Highfield Campus, Southampton SO17 1BJ, U.K
| | - Evan Wenbo Zhao
- Chemistry Department, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Jiang Lei
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Nuria Garcia-Araez
- Chemistry Department, University of Southampton, Highfield Campus, Southampton SO17 1BJ, U.K
| | - Clare P Grey
- Chemistry Department, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
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14
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Cui Q, Zhang P, Wang J. Electrochemical Oxidation of Li 2O 2 Surface-Doped with Li 2CO 3. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:6627-6632. [PMID: 31922718 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b19357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical oxidation of Li2O2, i.e., the charging reaction of the aprotic lithium-oxygen batteries (Li-O2 batteries), is significantly influenced by its surface chemistry. Here, the surface species of Li2CO3, widely identified together with Li2O2 at the end of discharge, is investigated to understand its implication for the oxidation of Li2O2. In situ doping Li2O2 with various amounts of Li2CO3 has been obtained by reacting with CO2 gas in a controlled way, and the electrochemical oxidation of the doped Li2O2 is studied with a quantitative differential electrochemical mass spectrometer (DEMS). Instead of a single charging potential plateau and one O2 gas evolution stage for the pristine Li2O2, Li2CO3-doped Li2O2 exhibits two O2/CO2 gas evolution stages and three charging plateaus characterized with the larger overpotential for the initial and final stages. The conductivity of Li2CO3 dopant is invoked to explain the different oxidation behaviors of Li2CO3-doped Li2O2. The DEMS study of the electrochemical oxidation of isotope-labeled Li213CO3 is also conducted to identify the origins of O2 and CO2 evolution during the oxidation of Li2CO3-doped Li2O2. The results reported here provide an improved understanding of the Li2O2 oxidation in the presence of parasitic Li2CO3 species and will contribute to the future development of Li-O2 batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghua Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry , Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Changchun , Jilin 130022 , P. R. China
| | - Peng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry , Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Changchun , Jilin 130022 , P. R. China
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering , Southern University of Science and Technology , Shenzhen 518055 , P. R. China
| | - Jiawei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry , Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Changchun , Jilin 130022 , P. R. China
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15
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Wu G. 17O NMR studies of organic and biological molecules in aqueous solution and in the solid state. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 114-115:135-191. [PMID: 31779879 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This review describes the latest developments in the field of 17O NMR spectroscopy of organic and biological molecules both in aqueous solution and in the solid state. In the first part of the review, a general theoretical description of the nuclear quadrupole relaxation process in isotropic liquids is presented at a mathematical level suitable for non-specialists. In addition to the first-order quadrupole interaction, the theory also includes additional relaxation mechanisms such as the second-order quadrupole interaction and its cross correlation with shielding anisotropy. This complete theoretical treatment allows one to assess the transverse relaxation rate (thus the line width) of NMR signals from half-integer quadrupolar nuclei in solution over the entire range of motion. On the basis of this theoretical framework, we discuss general features of quadrupole-central-transition (QCT) NMR, which is a particularly powerful method of studying biomolecules in the slow motion regime. Then we review recent advances in 17O QCT NMR studies of biological macromolecules in aqueous solution. The second part of the review is concerned with solid-state 17O NMR studies of organic and biological molecules. As a sequel to the previous review on the same subject [G. Wu, Prog. Nucl. Magn. Reson. Spectrosc. 52 (2008) 118-169], the current review provides a complete coverage of the literature published since 2008 in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
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16
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Lu Y, Cai Y, Zhang Q, Liu L, Niu Z, Chen J. A compatible anode/succinonitrile-based electrolyte interface in all-solid-state Na-CO 2 batteries. Chem Sci 2019; 10:4306-4312. [PMID: 31057757 PMCID: PMC6471599 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc05178j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A compatible anode/succinonitrile-based electrolyte interface is achieved owing to the in situ formed NaF-rich interphase through an extremely simple approach.
All-solid-state sodium batteries have great potential for large-scale energy storage applications. However, constructing a compatible Na anode/solid-state electrolyte (SSE) interface is still challenging because most SSEs are unstable toward Na metal. A succinonitrile (SN) SSE shows high room-temperature ionic conductivity (10–3 S cm–1) but easily deteriorates if in contact with Na metal, leading to continuously increased interfacial resistance. Here we present an extremely simple approach to introduce a compact NaF-rich interphase on a Na surface via chemical reactions between fluoroethylene carbonate–Na+ and Na metal, resulting in a compatible Na anode/SN-based electrolyte interface. The in situ formed NaF-rich interphase can not only prevent side reactions between the SN-based electrolyte and Na anode but also regulate the uniform deposition of dendrite-free Na. As a result, the symmetric cells show a low overpotential of 150 mV after cycling for 4000 h. Furthermore, all-solid-state Na–CO2 batteries (4Na + 3CO2 ↔ 2Na2CO3 + C) with the compatible interface can run for 50 cycles with a small overpotential increase of 0.33 V. This work provides a promising method to build a stable interface that enables the use of an SSE which is unstable toward Na in Na metal batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Lu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
| | - Yichao Cai
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
| | - Qiu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
| | - Luojia Liu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
| | - Zhiqiang Niu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
| | - Jun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education) , Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Center , College of Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China .
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17
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Ehinger C, Gordon CP, Copéret C. Oxygen transfer in electrophilic epoxidation probed by 17O NMR: differentiating between oxidants and role of spectator metal oxo. Chem Sci 2018; 10:1786-1795. [PMID: 30842846 PMCID: PMC6369410 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc04868a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxide compounds are used both in laboratory and industrial processes for the electrophilic epoxidation of olefins. Using NMR-spectroscopy, we investigate why certain peroxides engage in this type of reaction while others require activation by metal catalysts, e.g. methyltrioxorhenium (MTO). More precisely, an analysis of 17O NMR chemical shift and quadrupolar coupling parameters provides insights into the relative energy of specific frontier molecular orbitals relevant for reactivity. For organic peroxides or H2O2 a large deshielding is indicative of an energetically high-lying lone-pair on oxygen in combination with a low-lying σ*(O-O) orbital. This feature is particularly pronounced in species that engage in electrophilic epoxidation, such as peracids or dimethyldioxirane (DMDO), and much less pronounced in unreactive peroxides such as H2O2 and ROOH, which can however be activated by transition-metal catalysts. In fact, for the proposed active peroxo species in MTO-catalyzed electrophilic epoxidation with H2O2 an analysis of the 17O NMR chemical shift highlights specific π- and δ-type orbital interactions between the so-called metal spectator oxo and the peroxo moieties that raise the energy of the high-lying lone-pair on oxygen, thus increasing the reactivity of the peroxo species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Ehinger
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences , ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5 , 8093 , Zürich , Switzerland .
| | - Christopher P Gordon
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences , ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5 , 8093 , Zürich , Switzerland .
| | - Christophe Copéret
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences , ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5 , 8093 , Zürich , Switzerland .
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18
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Mahne N, Renfrew SE, McCloskey BD, Freunberger SA. Electrochemical Oxidation of Lithium Carbonate Generates Singlet Oxygen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [PMID: 29543372 PMCID: PMC5947587 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201802277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Solid alkali metal carbonates are universal passivation layer components of intercalation battery materials and common side products in metal‐O2 batteries, and are believed to form and decompose reversibly in metal‐O2/CO2 cells. In these cathodes, Li2CO3 decomposes to CO2 when exposed to potentials above 3.8 V vs. Li/Li+. However, O2 evolution, as would be expected according to the decomposition reaction 2 Li2CO3→4 Li++4 e−+2 CO2+O2, is not detected. O atoms are thus unaccounted for, which was previously ascribed to unidentified parasitic reactions. Here, we show that highly reactive singlet oxygen (1O2) forms upon oxidizing Li2CO3 in an aprotic electrolyte and therefore does not evolve as O2. These results have substantial implications for the long‐term cyclability of batteries: they underpin the importance of avoiding 1O2 in metal‐O2 batteries, question the possibility of a reversible metal‐O2/CO2 battery based on a carbonate discharge product, and help explain the interfacial reactivity of transition‐metal cathodes with residual Li2CO3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nika Mahne
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Sara E Renfrew
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California - Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Bryan D McCloskey
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California - Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Stefan A Freunberger
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010, Graz, Austria
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19
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Mahne N, Renfrew SE, McCloskey BD, Freunberger SA. Elektrochemische Oxidation von Lithiumcarbonat generiert Singulett‐Sauerstoff. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201802277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nika Mahne
- Institut für Chemische Technologie von Materialien Technische Universität Graz Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Österreich
| | - Sara E. Renfrew
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering University of California – Berkeley Berkeley CA 94720 USA
| | - Bryan D. McCloskey
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering University of California – Berkeley Berkeley CA 94720 USA
| | - Stefan A. Freunberger
- Institut für Chemische Technologie von Materialien Technische Universität Graz Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Österreich
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