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Nagarjuna P, Gupta V, Bagui A, Singh SP. Molecular engineering of new electron acceptor for highly efficient solution processable organic solar cells using state-of-the-art polymer donor PffBT4T-2OD. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.114492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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2
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Sasitharan K, Kilbride RC, Spooner EL, Clark J, Iraqi A, Lidzey DG, Foster JA. Metal-Organic Framework Nanosheets as Templates to Enhance Performance in Semi-Crystalline Organic Photovoltaic Cells. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2200366. [PMID: 35599384 PMCID: PMC9313490 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202200366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Optimizing the orientation, crystallinity, and domain size of components within organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices is key to maximizing their performance. Here a broadly applicable approach for enhancing the morphology of bulk heterojunction OPV devices using metal-organic nanosheets (MONs) as additives is demonstrated. It is shown that addition of porphyrin-based MONs to devices with fully amorphous donor polymers lead to small improvements in performance attributed to increased light absorption due to nanosheets. However, devices based on semi-crystalline polymers show remarkable improvements in power conversion efficiency (PCE), more than doubling in some cases compared to reference devices without nanosheets. In particular, this approach led to the development of PffBT4T2OD-MON-PCBM device with a PCE of 12.3%, which to the authors' knowledge is the highest performing fullerene based OPV device reported in literature to date. Detailed analysis of these devices shows that the presence of the nanosheets results in a higher fraction of face-on oriented polymer crystals in the films. These results therefore demonstrate the potential of this highly tunable class of two-dimensional nanomaterials as additives for enhancing the morphology, and therefore performance, of semi-crystalline organic electronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kezia Sasitharan
- Department of ChemistryThe University of SheffieldDainton Building, Brook HillSheffieldS3 7HFUK
| | - Rachel C. Kilbride
- Department of Physics and AstronomyThe University of SheffieldHicks Building, Hounsfield RoadSheffieldS3 7RHUK
| | - Emma L.K. Spooner
- Department of Physics and AstronomyThe University of SheffieldHicks Building, Hounsfield RoadSheffieldS3 7RHUK
| | - Jenny Clark
- Department of Physics and AstronomyThe University of SheffieldHicks Building, Hounsfield RoadSheffieldS3 7RHUK
| | - Ahmed Iraqi
- Department of ChemistryThe University of SheffieldDainton Building, Brook HillSheffieldS3 7HFUK
| | - David G. Lidzey
- Department of Physics and AstronomyThe University of SheffieldHicks Building, Hounsfield RoadSheffieldS3 7RHUK
| | - Jonathan A. Foster
- Department of ChemistryThe University of SheffieldDainton Building, Brook HillSheffieldS3 7HFUK
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3
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Gaspar H, Parnell AJ, Pérez GE, Viana JC, King SM, Mendes A, Pereira L, Bernardo G. Graded Morphologies and the Performance of PffBT4T-2OD:PC 71BM Devices Using Additive Choice. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11123367. [PMID: 34947716 PMCID: PMC8709449 DOI: 10.3390/nano11123367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The impact of several solvent processing additives (1-chloronaphthalene, methylnaphthalene, hexadecane, 1-phenyloctane, and p-anisaldehyde), 3% v/v in o-dichlorobenzene, on the performance and morphology of poly[(5,6-difluoro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4,7-diyl)-alt-(3,3‴-di(2-octyldodecyl)-2,2′,5′,22033,5″,2‴-quaterthiophen-5,5‴-diyl)] (PffBT4T-2OD):[6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM)-based polymer solar cells was investigated. Some additives were shown to enhance the power conversion efficiency (PCE) by ~6%, while others decreased the PCE by ~17–25% and a subset of the additives tested completely eliminated any power conversion efficiency and the operation as a photovoltaic device. Grazing-Incidence Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (GIWAXS) revealed a clear stepwise variation in the crystallinity of the systems when changing the additive between the two extreme situations of maximum PCE (1-chloronaphthalene) and null PCE (hexadecane). Small-Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS) revealed that the morphology of devices with PCE ~0% was composed of large domains with correlation lengths of ~30 nm, i.e., much larger than the typical exciton diffusion length (~12 nm) in organic semiconductors. The graded variations in crystallinity and in nano-domain size observed between the two extreme situations (1-chloronaphthalene and hexadecane) were responsible for the observed graded variations in device performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Gaspar
- Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Andrew J. Parnell
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, UK;
| | - Gabriel E. Pérez
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK;
| | - Júlio C. Viana
- Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
| | - Stephen M. King
- ISIS Pulsed Neutron and Muon Source, STFC, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Oxon OX11 0QX, UK;
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Luiz Pereira
- Department of Physics and i3N—Institute for Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.P.); (G.B.)
| | - Gabriel Bernardo
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal;
- Correspondence: (L.P.); (G.B.)
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4
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Zhang Y, Fu Y, Tang F, Zhang X. Exciton Self-Trapping Dynamics in 1D Perovskite Single Crystals: Effect of Quantum Tunnelling. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:4509-4516. [PMID: 33960789 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c00833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We present experimental and theoretical investigations of the photophysics in the one-dimensional (1D) hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite (HOIP) white-light emitter, [DMEDA]PbBr4. It is found that the broadband-emission nature of the 1D perovskite is similar to the case of two-dimensional (2D) HOIP materials, exciton self-trapping (ST) is the dominant mechanism. By comprehensive spectroscopic investigations, we observed direct evidence of exciton crossing the energy barrier separating free and ST states through quantum tunnelling. Moreover, we consider the lattice shrinking mechanisms at low temperatures and interpret the ST exciton formation process using a configuration coordinate diagram. We propose that the energy barrier separating free and ST excitons is temperature-dependent, and consequently, the manner of excitons crossing it is highly dependent on the exciting energy and temperature. For excitons located at the bottom of the free excitonic states, the quantum tunnelling is the dominant channel to the ST states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwei Zhang
- Faculty of Science, Institute of Information Photonics Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yulan Fu
- Faculty of Science, Institute of Information Photonics Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Fawei Tang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Xinping Zhang
- Faculty of Science, Institute of Information Photonics Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
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5
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Gaspar H, Figueira F, Strutyński K, Melle-Franco M, Ivanou D, Tomé JPC, Pereira CM, Pereira L, Mendes A, Viana JC, Bernardo G. Thiophene- and Carbazole-Substituted N-Methyl-Fulleropyrrolidine Acceptors in PffBT4T-2OD Based Solar Cells. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 13:E1267. [PMID: 32168798 PMCID: PMC7142714 DOI: 10.3390/ma13061267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The impact of fullerene side chain functionalization with thiophene and carbazole groups on the device properties of bulk-heterojunction polymer:fullerene solar cells is discussed through a systematic investigation of material blends consisting of the conjugated polymer poly[(5,6-difluoro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4,7-diyl)-alt-(3,3‴-di(2-octyldodecyl)-2,2';5',2″;5″,2‴-quaterthiophen-5,5‴-diyl)] (PffBT4T-2OD) as donor and C60 or C70 fulleropyrrolidines as acceptors. The photovoltaic performance clearly depended on the molecular structure of the fulleropyrrolidine substituents although no direct correlation with the surface morphology of the photoactive layer, as determined by atomic force microscopy, could be established. Although some fulleropyrrolidines possess favorable lowest unoccupied molecular orbital levels, when compared to the standard PC71BM, they originated OPV cells with inferior efficiencies than PC71BM-based reference cells. Fulleropyrrolidines based on C60 produced, in general, better devices than those based on C70, and we attribute this observation to the detrimental effect of the structural and energetic disorder that is present in the regioisomer mixtures of C70-based fullerenes, but absent in the C60-based fullerenes. These results provide new additional knowledge on the effect of the fullerene functionalization on the efficiency of organic solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Gaspar
- IPC/i3N—Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800–058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
| | - Flávio Figueira
- QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal;
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Karol Strutyński
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Manuel Melle-Franco
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Dzmitry Ivanou
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200–465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
| | - João P. C. Tomé
- QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal;
- CQE, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, n1, 1049–001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carlos M. Pereira
- Department of Chemistry, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169–007 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Luiz Pereira
- Department of Physics and i3N—Institute for Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication, University of Aveiro, 3810–193 Aveiro, Portugal;
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200–465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
| | - Júlio C. Viana
- IPC/i3N—Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800–058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
| | - Gabriel Bernardo
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200–465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
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6
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Bernardo G, Melle-Franco M, Washington AL, Dalgliesh RM, Li F, Mendes A, Parnell SR. Different agglomeration properties of PC61BM and PC71BM in photovoltaic inks – a spin-echo SANS study. RSC Adv 2020; 10:4512-4520. [PMID: 35495220 PMCID: PMC9049156 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra08019h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fullerene derivatives are used in a wide range of applications including as electron acceptors in solution-processable organic photovoltaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Bernardo
- LEPABE – Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy
- Faculty of Engineering
- University of Porto
- 4200-465 Porto
- Portugal
| | - Manuel Melle-Franco
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Aveiro
- 3810-193 Aveiro
- Portugal
| | - Adam L. Washington
- ISIS Pulsed Neutron and Muon Source
- STFC
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
- Oxon
- UK
| | | | - Fankang Li
- Neutron Technologies Division
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE – Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy
- Faculty of Engineering
- University of Porto
- 4200-465 Porto
- Portugal
| | - Steven R. Parnell
- Faculty of Applied Sciences
- Delft University of Technology
- 2629 JB Delft
- Netherlands
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7
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Gaspar H, Figueira F, Strutyński K, Melle-Franco M, Ivanou D, Tomé JPC, Pereira CM, Pereira L, Mendes A, Viana JC, Bernardo G. PffBT4T-2OD Based Solar Cells with Aryl-Substituted N-Methyl-Fulleropyrrolidine Acceptors. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E4100. [PMID: 31817967 PMCID: PMC6947311 DOI: 10.3390/ma12244100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Novel C60 and C70 N-methyl-fulleropyrrolidine derivatives, containing both electron withdrawing and electron donating substituent groups, were synthesized by the well-known Prato reaction. The corresponding highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)/lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy levels were determined by cyclic voltammetry, from the onset oxidation and reduction potentials, respectively. Some of the novel fullerenes have higher LUMO levels than the standards PC61BM and PC71BM. When tested in PffBT4T-2OD based polymer solar cells, with the standard architecture ITO/PEDOT:PSS/Active-Layer/Ca/Al, these fullerenes do not bring about any efficiency improvements compared to the standard PC71BM system, however they show how the electronic nature of the different substituents strongly affects the efficiency of the corresponding organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices. The functionalization of C70 yields a mixture of regioisomers and density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that these have systematically different electronic properties. This electronic inhomogeneity is likely responsible for the lower performance observed in devices containing C70 derivatives. These results help to understand how new fullerene acceptors can affect the performance of OPV devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Gaspar
- IPC/i3N—Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
| | - Flávio Figueira
- QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Karol Strutyński
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Manuel Melle-Franco
- CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (K.S.); (M.M.-F.)
| | - Dzmitry Ivanou
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
| | - João P. C. Tomé
- QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
- CQE and Departamento de Engenharia Química, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carlos M. Pereira
- CIQUP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, w/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Luiz Pereira
- Department of Physics and i3N—Institute for Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
| | - Júlio C. Viana
- IPC/i3N—Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (H.G.); (J.C.V.)
| | - Gabriel Bernardo
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (D.I.); (A.M.)
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8
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Zhang W, Hu R, Zeng X, Su X, Chen Z, Zou X, Peng J, Zhang C, Yartsev A. Effect of Post-Thermal Annealing on the Performance and Charge Photogeneration Dynamics of PffBT4T-2OD/PC 71BM Solar Cells. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:E408. [PMID: 30960392 PMCID: PMC6473355 DOI: 10.3390/polym11030408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, we studied influence of post thermal annealing on the performance and charge photogeneration processes of PffBT4T-2OD/PC71BM solar cells. As-prepared device exhibits a high-power conversion efficiency of 9.5%, much higher than that after thermal annealing. To understand this phenomenon, we studied charge photogeneration processes in these solar cells by means of time resolved spectroscopy. We associate the degradation of solar cell performance with the reduction of exciton dissociation efficiency and with increased bimolecular recombination of photogenerated charges as a result of annealing. We correlate the generation of localized PffBT4T-2OD polarons observed via spectro-electrochemical measurements with enhancement of the bimolecular charge recombination of annealed solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Rong Hu
- Research Institute for New Materials Technology, Chongqing University of Arts and Science, Chongqing 402160, China.
| | - Xiaokang Zeng
- Research Institute for New Materials Technology, Chongqing University of Arts and Science, Chongqing 402160, China.
| | - Xiaojun Su
- NanoLund and Division of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Lund 22100, Sweden.
| | - Zhifeng Chen
- School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Xianshao Zou
- NanoLund and Division of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Lund 22100, Sweden.
| | - Jun Peng
- School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Chengyun Zhang
- School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Arkady Yartsev
- NanoLund and Division of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Lund 22100, Sweden.
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9
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Gaspar H, Figueira F, Pereira L, Mendes A, Viana JC, Bernardo G. Recent Developments in the Optimization of the Bulk Heterojunction Morphology of Polymer: Fullerene Solar Cells. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 11:E2560. [PMID: 30558380 PMCID: PMC6316550 DOI: 10.3390/ma11122560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices, made with semiconducting polymers, have recently attained a power conversion efficiency (PCE) over 14% in single junction cells and over 17% in tandem cells. These high performances, together with the suitability of the technology to inexpensive large-scale manufacture, over lightweight and flexible plastic substrates using roll-to-roll (R2R) processing, place the technology amongst the most promising for future harvesting of solar energy. Although OPVs using non-fullerene acceptors have recently outperformed their fullerene-based counterparts, the research in the development of new fullerenes and in the improvement of the bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) morphology and device efficiency of polymer:fullerene solar cells remains very active. In this review article, the most relevant research works performed over the last 3 years, that is, since the year 2016 onwards, in the field of fullerene-based polymer solar cells based on the copolymers PTB7, PTB7-Th (also known as PBDTTT-EFT) and PffBT4T-2OD, are presented and discussed. This review is primarily focused on studies that involve the improvement of the BHJ morphology, efficiency and stability of small active area devices (typically < 15 mm²), through the use of different processing strategies such as the use of different fullerene acceptors, different processing solvents and additives and different thermal treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Gaspar
- IPC/i3N-Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal.
| | - Flávio Figueira
- QOPNA, Departament of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Luiz Pereira
- Department of Physics and i3N-Institute for Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Júlio C Viana
- IPC/i3N-Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal.
| | - Gabriel Bernardo
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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