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Petit R, Izambart J, Guillou M, da Silva Almeida JRG, de Oliveira Junior RG, Sol V, Ouk TS, Grougnet R, Quintans-Júnior LJ, Sitarek P, Thiéry V, Picot L. A Review of Phototoxic Plants, Their Phototoxic Metabolites, and Possible Developments as Photosensitizers. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202300494. [PMID: 37983920 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202300494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding phototoxic terrestrial plants and their phototoxic and photosensitizing metabolites. Within the 435,000 land plant species, only around 250 vascular plants have been documented as phototoxic or implicated in phototoxic occurrences in humans and animals. This work compiles a comprehensive catalog of these phototoxic plant species, organized alphabetically based on their taxonomic family. The dataset encompasses meticulous details including taxonomy, geographical distribution, vernacular names, and information on the nature and structure of their phototoxic and photosensitizing molecule(s). Subsequently, this study undertook an in-depth investigation into phototoxic molecules, resulting in the compilation of a comprehensive and up-to-date list of phytochemicals exhibiting phototoxic or photosensitizing activity synthesized by terrestrial plants. For each identified molecule, an extensive review was conducted, encompassing discussions on its phototoxic activity, chemical family, occurrence in plant families or species, distribution within different plant tissues and organs, as well as the biogeographical locations of the producer species worldwide. The analysis also includes a thorough discussion on the potential use of these molecules for the development of new photosensitizers that could be used in topical or injectable formulations for antimicrobial and anticancer phototherapy as well as manufacturing of photoactive devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaëlle Petit
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | - Jonathan Izambart
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | - Mathieu Guillou
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | | | - Raimundo Gonçalves de Oliveira Junior
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- UMR CNRS 8038 CiTCoM, Université Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Sol
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LABCiS, UR 22722, Université de Limoges, 87000, Limoges, France
| | - Tan-Sothea Ouk
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LABCiS, UR 22722, Université de Limoges, 87000, Limoges, France
| | - Raphaël Grougnet
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- UMR CNRS 8038 CiTCoM, Université Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Lucindo José Quintans-Júnior
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LANEF, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000, São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
| | | | - Valérie Thiéry
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
| | - Laurent Picot
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
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Hammerle F, Fiala J, Höck A, Huymann L, Vrabl P, Husiev Y, Bonnet S, Peintner U, Siewert B. Fungal Anthraquinone Photoantimicrobials Challenge the Dogma of Cationic Photosensitizers. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 86:2247-2257. [PMID: 37708055 PMCID: PMC10616806 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c01157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
The photoantimicrobial potential of four mushroom species (i.e., Cortinarius cinnabarinus, C. holoxanthus, C. malicorius, and C. sanguineus) was explored by studying the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) via a light-modified broth microdilution assay based on the recommended protocols of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). The extracts were tested against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus under blue (λ = 428 and 478 nm, H = 30 J/cm2) and green light (λ = 528 nm, H = 30 J/cm2) irradiation. Three extracts showed significant photoantimicrobial effects at concentrations below 25 μg/mL. Targeted isolation of the major pigments from C. sanguineus led to the identification of two new potent photoantimicrobials, one of them (i.e., dermocybin) being active against S. aureus and C. albicans under green light irradiation [PhotoMIC530 = 39.5 μM (12.5 μg/mL) and 2.4 μM (0.75 μg/mL), respectively] and the other one (i.e., emodin) being in addition active against E. coli in a low micromolar range [PhotoMIC428 = 11.1 μM (3 μg/mL)]. Intriguingly, dermocybin was not (photo)cytotoxic against the three tested cell lines, adding an additional level of selectivity. Since both photoantimicrobials are not charged, this discovery shifts the paradigm of cationic photosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hammerle
- Department
of Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, CCB −
Centrum of Chemistry and Biomedicine, CMBI − Center for Molecular
Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes Fiala
- Department
of Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, CCB −
Centrum of Chemistry and Biomedicine, CMBI − Center for Molecular
Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Anja Höck
- Department
of Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, CCB −
Centrum of Chemistry and Biomedicine, CMBI − Center for Molecular
Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department
of Biotechnology & Food Engineering, MCI-The Entrepreneurial School, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lesley Huymann
- Department
of Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, CCB −
Centrum of Chemistry and Biomedicine, CMBI − Center for Molecular
Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Institute
of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Pamela Vrabl
- Institute
of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Yurii Husiev
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sylvestre Bonnet
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute
of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Department
of Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, CCB −
Centrum of Chemistry and Biomedicine, CMBI − Center for Molecular
Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Hammerle F, Quirós-Guerrero L, Wolfender JL, Peintner U, Siewert B. Highlighting the Phototherapeutical Potential of Fungal Pigments in Various Fruiting Body Extracts with Informed Feature-Based Molecular Networking. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 86:1972-1992. [PMID: 36947169 PMCID: PMC10497435 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-023-02200-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Fungal pigments are characterized by a diverse set of chemical backbones, some of which present photosensitizer-like structures. From the genus Cortinarius, for example, several biologically active photosensitizers have been identified leading to the hypothesis that photoactivity might be a more general phenomenon in the kingdom Fungi. This paper aims at testing the hypothesis. Forty-eight fruiting body-forming species producing pigments from all four major biosynthetic pathways (i.e., shikimate-chorismate, acetate-malonate, mevalonate, and nitrogen heterocycles) were selected and submitted to a workflow combining in vitro chemical and biological experiments with state-of-the-art metabolomics. Fungal extracts were profiled by high-resolution mass spectrometry and subsequently explored by spectral organization through feature-based molecular networking (FBMN), including advanced metabolite dereplication techniques. Additionally, the photochemical properties (i.e., light-dependent production of singlet oxygen), the phenolic content, and the (photo)cytotoxic activity of the extracts were studied. Different levels of photoactivity were found in species from all four metabolic groups, indicating that light-dependent effects are common among fungal pigments. In particular, extracts containing pigments from the acetate-malonate pathway, e.g., extracts from Bulgaria inquinans, Daldinia concentrica, and Cortinarius spp., were not only efficient producers of singlet oxygen but also exhibited photocytotoxicity against three different cancer cell lines. This study explores the distribution of photobiological traits in fruiting body forming fungi and highlights new sources for phototherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hammerle
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Luis Quirós-Guerrero
- Phytochemistry and Bioactive Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, CMU - Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CMU, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Luc Wolfender
- Phytochemistry and Bioactive Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, CMU - Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CMU, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Department of Microbiology, University Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Vrabl P, Zottele M, Colleselli L, Schinagl CW, Mayerhofer L, Siewert B, Strasser H. Light in the box-photobiological examination chamber with light trap ventilation system for studying fungal surface cultures illustrated with Metarhizium brunneum and Beauveria brongniartii. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2023; 10:11. [PMID: 37248509 PMCID: PMC10228068 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-023-00159-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their versatile way of life as saprophytes, endophytes, and entomopathogens, fungi of the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria are exposed to varying illumination conditions in their natural habitats, which makes a thorough adaptation to light very likely. While the few available studies for these genera support this assumption, research in this field is still in its infancy and the data material restricted to only a few fungal species. Thus, the aim of this work was to explore how light influences growth, conidial production and secondary metabolite formation of two industrial relevant strains of M. brunneum (MA 43, formerly M. anisopliae var. anisopliae BIPESCO 5/F52) and B. brongniartii (BIPESCO 2). To achieve this, we constructed an easily adjustable illumination device for highly standardized photophysiological studies of fungi on Petri dishes, the so-called LIGHT BOX. With the aid of this device, M. brunneum and B. brongniartii were grown on S4G or S2G agar at 25 °C for 14 days either in complete darkness or under constant illumination with red light (λpeak = 635 nm), green light (λpeak = 519 nm) or blue light (λpeak = 452 nm). In addition, for each wavelength the effect of different illumination intensities was tested, i.e., intensities of red light ranging from 22.1 ± 0.1 to 136.5 ± 0.3 µW cm-2, green light from 16.5 ± 0.1 to 96.2 ± 0.1 µW cm-2, and blue light from 56.1 ± 0.2 to 188.9 ± 0.6 µW cm-2. Both fungi strongly responded in terms of growth, conidial production, pigmentation and morphology to changes in the wavelength and irradiation intensity. The wavelength-dependent production of the well-known secondary metabolite oosporein which is secreted by the genus Beauveria in particular, was also increased under green and blue light exposure. The established LIGHT BOX system allows not only to optimize conidial production yields with these biotechnologically relevant fungi, but also allows the photobiological exploration of other fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Vrabl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Maria Zottele
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lucia Colleselli
- Department of Biotechnology & Food Engineering, MCI-The Entrepreneurial School, Maximilianstraße 2, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christoph Walter Schinagl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Biotechnology & Food Engineering, MCI-The Entrepreneurial School, Maximilianstraße 2, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Laura Mayerhofer
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Hermann Strasser
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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Hannecker A, Huymann L, Hammerle F, Peintner U, Siewert B. Photochemical defense as trait of fungi from Cortinarius subgenus Dermocybe. PHOTOCHEMICAL & PHOTOBIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE EUROPEAN PHOTOCHEMISTRY ASSOCIATION AND THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR PHOTOBIOLOGY 2023; 22:147-157. [PMID: 36180663 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-022-00305-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The photobiological activity of ten colorful species belonging to subgenus Dermocybe of the basidiomycete genus Cortinarius was investigated. Extracts of all species produced singlet oxygen and are thus photoactive. Pigment analysis was performed and showed similarities of the anthraquinone pigments across the species in dependency to their respective pigmentation types. Detailed content analysis of the pigments in the whole agaricoid fruiting body compared to the three different tissue types (pileus, stipe, and lamellae) revealed that the pigments emodin, dermocybin, and dermorubin, as well as their respective glycosides, are enhanced in the gills. In an independent experiment, the gills were shown to be the most photoactive tissues of the fruiting body. Photobiological experiments with invertebrates (i.e., glassworm Chaoborus crystallinus) proved a phototoxic effect of the methanolic extract of the red blood webcap (Cortinarius sanguineus var. aurantiovaginatus). This work adds further evidence to a common photobiological trait in Cortinarius subgenus Dermocybe and underpins the possibility of a photochemical defense mechanism in fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Hannecker
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lesley Huymann
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.,Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Fabian Hammerle
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Siewert B, Ćurak G, Hammerle F, Huymann L, Fiala J, Peintner U. The photosensitizer emodin is concentrated in the gills of the fungus Cortinarius rubrophyllus. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2022; 228:112390. [PMID: 35123160 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2022.112390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The colorful agaricoid fruiting bodies of dermocyboid Cortinarii owe their magnificent hue to a mixture of anthraquinone (AQ) pigments. Recently, it was discovered that some of these fungal anthraquinones have an impressive photopharmacological effect. The question, therefore, arises as to whether these pigments are also of ecological or functional significance. According to the optimal defense hypothesis, toxic molecules should be enriched in spore-producing structures, such as the gills of agarics. To test this hypothesis, we studied the distribution of fungal AQs in the fruiting body of Cortinarius rubrophyllus. The fungus belongs to the well-studied Cortinarius subgenus Dermocybe but has not been chemically characterized. Here, we report on the pigment profile of this beautiful fungus and focus on the distribution of anthraquinone pigments in the fruiting body for the first time. Here it is statistically confirmed that the potent photosensitizer emodin is significantly enriched in the gills. Furthermore, we show that the extract is photoactive against cancer cells and bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Gabrijela Ćurak
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Fabian Hammerle
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lesley Huymann
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes Fiala
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Hammerle F, Steger LM, Zhou X, Bonnet S, Huymann L, Peintner U, Siewert B. Optimized isolation of 7,7'-biphyscion starting from Cortinarius rubrophyllus, a chemically unexplored fungal species rich in photosensitizers. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:221-234. [PMID: 34971447 PMCID: PMC8863709 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00159-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Mushrooms such as the dermocyboid Cortinarius rubrophyllus are characterized by strikingly colorful fruiting bodies. The molecular dyes responsible for such colors recently experienced a comeback as photoactive compounds with remarkable photophysical and photobiological properties. One of them-7,7'-biphyscion-is a dimeric anthraquinone that showed promising anticancer effects in the low nanomolar range under blue-light irradiation. Compared to acidic anthraquinones, 7,7'-biphyscion was more efficiently taken up by cells and induced apoptosis after photoactivation. However, seasonal collection of mushrooms producing this compound, low extraction yields, and tricky fungal identification hamper further developments to the clinics. To bypass these limitations, we demonstrate here an alternative approach utilizing a precursor of 7,7'-biphyscion, i.e., the pre-anthraquinone flavomannin-6,6'-dimethyl ether, which is abundant in many species of the subgenus Dermocybe. Controlled oxidation of the crude extract significantly increased the yield of 7,7'-biphyscion by 100%, which eased the isolation process. We also present the mycochemical and photobiological characterization of the yet chemically undescribed species, i.e. C. rubrophyllus. In total, eight pigments (1-8) were isolated, including two new glycosylated anthraquinones (1 and 2). Light-dependent generation of singlet oxygen was detected for the first time for emodin-1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (3) [photophysical measurement: Φ∆ = 0.11 (CD3OD)]. Furthermore, emodin (7) was characterized as promising compound in the photocytotoxicity assay with EC50-values in the low micromolar range under irradiation against cells of the cancer cell lines AGS, A549, and T24.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hammerle
- Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lisa-Maria Steger
- Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Xuequan Zhou
- Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O Box 9502, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sylvestre Bonnet
- Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O Box 9502, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lesley Huymann
- University of Innsbruck, Microbiology, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ursula Peintner
- University of Innsbruck, Microbiology, Technikerstraße 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Targeted isolation of photoactive pigments from mushrooms yielded a highly potent new photosensitizer: 7,7′-biphyscion. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1108. [PMID: 35064132 PMCID: PMC8782903 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04975-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractPigments of fungi are a fertile ground of inspiration: they spread across various chemical backbones, absorption ranges, and bioactivities. However, basidiomycetes with strikingly colored fruiting bodies have never been explored as agents for photodynamic therapy (PDT), even though known photoactive compound classes (e.g., anthraquinones or alkaloids) are used as chemotaxonomic markers. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the dyes of skin-heads (dermocyboid Cortinarii) can produce singlet oxygen under irradiation and thus are natural photosensitizers. Three photosensitizers based on anthraquinone structures were isolated and photopharmaceutical tests were conducted. For one of the three, i.e., (–)-7,7′-biphyscion (1), a promising photoyield and photocytotoxicity of EC50 = 0.064 µM against cancer cells (A549) was found under blue light irradiation (λexc = 468 nm, 9.3 J/cm2). The results of molecular biological methods, e.g., a viability assay and a cell cycle analysis, demonstrated the harmlessness of 1 in the dark and highlighted the apoptosis-inducing PDT potential under blue light irradiation. These results demonstrate for the first time that pigments of dermocyboid Cortinarii possess a so far undescribed activity, i.e., photoactivity, with significant potential for the field of PDT. The dimeric anthraquinone (–)-7,7′-biphyscion (1) was identified as a promising natural photosensitizer.
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Vrabl P, Siewert B, Winkler J, Schöbel H, Schinagl CW, Knabl L, Orth-Höller D, Fiala J, Meijer MS, Bonnet S, Burgstaller W. Xanthoepocin, a photolabile antibiotic of Penicillium ochrochloron CBS 123823 with high activity against multiresistant gram-positive bacteria. Microb Cell Fact 2022; 21:1. [PMID: 34983506 PMCID: PMC8725544 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01718-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background With the steady increase of antibiotic resistance, several strategies have been proposed in the scientific community to overcome the crisis. One of many successful strategies is the re-evaluation of known compounds, which have been early discarded out of the pipeline, with state-of-the-art know-how. Xanthoepocin, a polyketide widespread among the genus Penicillium with an interesting bioactivity spectrum against gram-positive bacteria, is such a discarded antibiotic. The purpose of this work was to (i) isolate larger quantities of this metabolite and chemically re-evaluate it with modern technology, (ii) to explore which factors lead to xanthoepocin biosynthesis in P. ochrochloron, and (iii) to test if it is beside its known activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), also active against linezolid and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (LVRE)—a very problematic resistant bacterium which is currently on the rise. Results In this work, we developed several new protocols to isolate, extract, and quantify xanthoepocin out of bioreactor batch and petri dish-grown mycelium of P. ochrochloron. The (photo)chemical re-evaluation with state-of-the-art techniques revealed that xanthoepocin is a photolabile molecule, which produces singlet oxygen under blue light irradiation. The intracellular xanthoepocin content, which was highest under ammonium-limited conditions, varied considerably with the applied irradiation conditions in petri dish and bioreactor batch cultures. Using light-protecting measures, we achieved MIC values against gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which were up to 5 times lower than previously published. In addition, xanthoepocin was highly active against a clinical isolate of linezolid and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (LVRE). Conclusions This interdisciplinary work underlines that the re-evaluation of known compounds with state-of-the-art techniques is an important strategy in the combat against multiresistant bacteria and that light is a crucial factor on many levels that needs to receive more attention. With appropriate light protecting measures in the susceptibility tests, xanthoepocin proved to be a powerful antibiotic against MRSA and LVRE. Exploring the light response of other polyketides may be pivotal for re-introducing previously discarded metabolites into the antibiotic pipeline and to identify photosensitizers which might be used for (antimicrobial) photodynamic therapies. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01718-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Vrabl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Jacqueline Winkler
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Harald Schöbel
- MCI - The Entrepreneurial University, Maximilianstraße 2, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christoph W Schinagl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ludwig Knabl
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße 41, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.,Tyrolpath Obrist Brunhuber GmbH, Hauptplatz 4, 6511, Zams, Austria
| | - Dorothea Orth-Höller
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße 41, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.,MB-Lab, Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Franz Fischer Str. 7b, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes Fiala
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.,Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Michael S Meijer
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629HZ, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Sylvestre Bonnet
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wolfgang Burgstaller
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 25d, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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10
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Hammerle F, Quirós-Guerrero L, Rutz A, Wolfender JL, Schöbel H, Peintner U, Siewert B. Feature-Based Molecular Networking-An Exciting Tool to Spot Species of the Genus Cortinarius with Hidden Photosensitizers. Metabolites 2021; 11:791. [PMID: 34822449 PMCID: PMC8619139 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11110791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi have developed a wide array of defense strategies to overcome mechanical injuries and pathogen infections. Recently, photoactivity has been discovered by showing that pigments isolated from Cortinarius uliginosus produce singlet oxygen under irradiation. To test if this phenomenon is limited to dermocyboid Cortinarii, six colourful Cortinarius species belonging to different classical subgenera (i.e., Dermocybe, Leprocybe, Myxacium, Phlegmacium, and Telamonia) were investigated. Fungal extracts were explored by the combination of in vitro photobiological methods, UHPLC coupled to high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS2), feature-based molecular networking (FBMN), and metabolite dereplication techniques. The fungi C. rubrophyllus (Dermocybe) and C. xanthophyllus (Phlegmacium) exhibited promising photobiological activity in a low concentration range (1-7 µg/mL). Using UHPLC-HRMS2-based metabolomic tools, the underlying photoactive principle was investigated. Several monomeric and dimeric anthraquinones were annotated as compounds responsible for the photoactivity. Furthermore, the results showed that light-induced activity is not restricted to a single subgenus, but rather is a trait of Cortinarius species of different phylogenetic lineages and is linked to the presence of fungal anthraquinones. This study highlights the genus Cortinarius as a promising source for novel photopharmaceuticals. Additionally, we showed that putative dereplication of natural photosensitizers can be done by FBMN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hammerle
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, CCB—Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Luis Quirós-Guerrero
- Phytochemistry and Bioactive Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; (L.Q.-G.); (A.R.); (J.-L.W.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Rutz
- Phytochemistry and Bioactive Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; (L.Q.-G.); (A.R.); (J.-L.W.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Luc Wolfender
- Phytochemistry and Bioactive Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; (L.Q.-G.); (A.R.); (J.-L.W.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CMU—Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Harald Schöbel
- Department of Biotechnology, MCI—The Entrepreneurial School, Maximilianstraße 2, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, CCB—Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
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11
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Fiala J, Schöbel H, Vrabl P, Dietrich D, Hammerle F, Artmann DJ, Stärz R, Peintner U, Siewert B. A New High-Throughput-Screening-Assay for Photoantimicrobials Based on EUCAST Revealed Unknown Photoantimicrobials in Cortinariaceae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:703544. [PMID: 34421861 PMCID: PMC8375034 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.703544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is one of the biggest health and subsequent economic threat humanity faces. Next to massive global awareness campaigns, governments and NGOs alike stress the need for new innovative strategies to treat microbial infections. One of such innovative strategies is the photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT) in which the synergistic effects of photons and drugs are exploited. While many promising reports are available, PACT - and especially the drug-design part behind - is still in its infancy. Common best-practice rules, such as the EUCAST or CLSI protocols for classic antibiotics as well as high-throughput screenings, are missing, and this, in turn, hampers the identification of hit structures. Hit-like structures might come from synthetic approaches or from natural sources. They are identified via activity-guided synthesis or isolation strategies. As source for new antimicrobials, fungi are highly ranked. They share the same ecological niche with many other microbes and consequently established chemical strategies to combat with the others. Recently, in members of the Cortinariaceae, especially of the subgenus Dermocybe, photoactive metabolites were detected. To study their putative photoantimicrobial effect, a photoantimicrobial high-throughput screening (HTS) based on The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) was established. After validation, the established HTS was used to evaluate a sample set containing six colorful representatives from the genus Cortinarius (i.e., Cortinarius callisteus, C. rufo-olivaceus, C. traganus, C. trivialis, C. venetus, and C. xanthophyllus). The assay is built on a uniform, light-emitting diode (LED)-based light irradiation across a 96-well microtiter plate, which was achieved by a pioneering arrangement of the LEDs. The validation of the assay was accomplished with well-known photoactive drugs, so-called photosensitizers, utilizing six distinct emission wavelengths (λexc = 428, 478, 523, 598, or 640 nm) and three microbial strains (Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli). Evaluating the extracts of six Cortinarius species revealed two highly promising species, i.e., C. rufo-olivaceus and C. xanthophyllus. Extracts from the latter were photoactive against the Gram-positive S. aureus (c = 7.5 μg/ml, H = 30 J/cm2, λ = 478 nm) and the fungus C. albicans (c = 75 μg/ml, H = 30 J/cm2, λ = 478 nm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Fiala
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Pamela Vrabl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dorothea Dietrich
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Fabian Hammerle
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Ronald Stärz
- MCI - The Entrepreneurial School, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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12
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Siewert B. Does the chemistry of fungal pigments demand the existence of photoactivated defense strategies in basidiomycetes? Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:475-488. [PMID: 33738747 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00034-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The well-known photosensitizers hypericin, harmane, and emodin are typical pigments of certain mushroom species-is this a coincidence or an indication towards a photoactivated defense mechanism in the phylum Basidiomycota? This perspective article explores this hypothesis by cross-linking the chemistry of fungal pigments with structural requirements from known photosensitizers and insights from photoactivated strategies in the kingdom Plantae. Thereby, light is shed on a yet unexplored playground dealing with ecological questions, photopharmaceutical opportunities, and biotechnological potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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13
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Siewert B, Stuppner H. The photoactivity of natural products - An overlooked potential of phytomedicines? PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 60:152985. [PMID: 31257117 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2019.152985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photoactivity, though known for centuries, is only recently shifting back into focus as a treatment option against cancer and microbial infections. The external factor light is the ingenious key-component of this therapy: Since light activates the drug locally, a high level of selectivity is reached and side effects are avoided. The first reported photoactive medicines were plant extracts. Synthetic entities (so-called photosensitizers PSs), however, paved the route towards the clinical approval of the so-called photodynamic therapy (PDT), and thus natural PSs took a backseat in the past. HYPOTHESIS Many isolated bioactive phytochemicals hold a hidden photoactive potential, which is overlooked due to the reduced common awareness of photoactivity. METHODS A systematic review of reported natural PSs and their supposed medicinal application was conducted by employing PubMed, Scifinder, and Web of Science. The identified photoactive natural products were compiled including information about their natural sources, their photoyield, and their pharmacological application. Furthermore, the common chemical scaffolds of natural PS are shown to enable the reader to recognize potentially overlooked natural PSs. RESULTS The literature review revealed over 100 natural PS, excluding porphyrins. The PSs were classified according to their scaffold. Thereby it was shown that some PS-scaffolds were analyzed in a detailed way, while other classes were only scarcely investigated, which leaves space for future discoveries. In addition, the literature revealed that many PSs are phytoalexins, thus the selection of the starting material significantly matters in order to find new PSs. CONCLUSION Photoactive principles are ubiquitous and can be found in various plant extracts. With the increasing availability of light-irradiation setups for the identification of photoactive natural products, we anticipate the discovery of many new natural PSs in the near future. With the accumulation of chemically diverse PSs, PDT itself might finally reach its clinical breakthrough as a promising alternative treatment against multi-resistant microbes and cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, Innsbruck, 6020 Austria.
| | - Hermann Stuppner
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, Innsbruck, 6020 Austria
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