Macronutrient digestion and polyphenol bioaccessibility in oat milk tea products: an in vitro gastrointestinal tract study

People are increasingly preparing milk tea using plant-based milks rather than cow's milk, e.g., vegans, those with lactose intolerance, and those with flavor preferences. However, adding plant-based milks to tea may impact the digestion, release, and bioaccessibility of nutrients and nutraceuticals in both the tea and milk. In this study, oat milk tea model systems (OMTMSs) containing different fat and tea polyphenol concentrations were used to explore the impact of tea on macronutrient digestion in oat milk, as well as the impact of oat milk matrix on the polyphenol bioaccessibility in the tea. An in vitro gastrointestinal model that mimics the mouth, stomach, and small intestine was used. Tea polyphenols (>0.25%) significantly reduced the glucose and free fatty acids released from oat milk after intestinal digestion. Tea polyphenols (>0.10%) also inhibited protein digestion in oat milk during gastric digestion but not during intestinal digestion. The bioaccessibility of the polyphenols in the tea depended on the fat content of oat milk, being higher for medium-fat (3.0%) and high-fat (5.8%) oat milk than low-fat (1.5%) oat milk. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) analysis showed that lipids improved the tea polyphenol bioaccessibility by influencing the release of flavonoids and phenolic acids from the food matrices. These results provide important information about the impact of tea on the gastrointestinal fate of oat milk, and vice versa, which may be important for enhancing the healthiness of plant-based beverages.

Physicochemical stability of corn protein hydrolysate/tannic acid complex-based β-carotene nanoemulsion delivery system

Moderate non-covalent interaction of protein and polyphenols can improve the emulsifying property of protein itself. The corn protein hydrolysate (CPH) and tannic acid (TA) complex was successfully used to construct nanoemulsion for algal oil delivery. There has been no study on the feasibility of this nanoemulsion delivery system for other food functional components, for example, β-carotene (β-CE). CPH/TA complex-based nanoemulsion system for β-CE delivery was studied, focusing on the effect of β-CE content on the physicochemical stability of the nanoemulsions. The nanoemulsion delivery systems (dia. 150 nm) with low viscosity and good liquidity were easily fabricated by two-step emulsification. The nanoemulsions with high β-CE content (>71.5 μg/mL) significantly increased (p < .05) the emulsion droplet size. However, there was no significant (p > .05) effect of β-CE content on polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential of the nanoemulsions. The storage (30 days) experiment results demonstrated that the droplet size of the nanoemulsions with varying β-CE content increased slightly during storage. However, the PDI values showed a slightly decreasing trend. Zeta potentials of the nanoemulsions showed no noticeable change during storage. Moreover, after storage of 30 days, the retention ratios of β-CE were found to be up to 90%, which suggests an excellent protective effect for β-CE by the nanoemulsion systems. The CPH/TA complex stabilized nanoemulsions could aggregate in gastric condition, but the β-CE content did not have obvious effect on the digestive stability of the nanoemulsions. The CPH/TA complex could be employed as an emulsifier to construct a physicochemical stable nanoemulsion delivery system for lipophilic active components.

Preparation and Application of High Internal Phase Pickering Emulsion Gels Stabilized by Starch Nanocrystal/Tannic Acid Complex Particles

Herein, the starch nanocrystal/tannic acid (ST) complex particles, which were prepared based on the hydrogen bond between starch nanocrystal (SNC) and tannic acid (TA), were successfully used to stabilize the HIPPE gels. The optimal TA concentration of the ST complex particles resulted in better water dispersibility, surface wettability, and interfacial activity as compared to SNC. The hydrogen bond responsible for the formation of ST complex particles and subsequent stable emulsions was demonstrated by varying the pH and ionic strength of the aqueous phase. Notably, the HIPPE gels stabilized via the ST complex particles can maintain long-term stability for up to three months. The HIPPEs stabilized via the ST complex particles all displayed gel-like features and had smaller droplets and denser droplet networks than the SNC-stabilized HIPPEs. The rheological behavior of HIPPE gels stabilized via the ST complex particles can be readily changed by tuning the mass ratio of SNC and TA as well as pH. Finally, the prepared HIPPE gels used to effectively protect encapsulated β-carotene against high temperatures and ultraviolet radiation and its controllable release at room temperature were demonstrated. It is anticipated that the aforementioned findings will provide new perspectives on the preparation of Pickering emulsion for delivery systems.

The application of encapsulation technology in the food Industry: Classifications, recent Advances, and perspectives

Encapsulation technology has been extensively used to enhance the stability, specificity, and bioavailability of essential food ingredients. Additionally, it plays a vital role in improving product quality and reducing production costs. This study presents a comprehensive classification of encapsulation techniques based on the state of different cores (solid, liquid, and gaseous) and offers a detailed description and analysis of these encapsulation methods. Specifically, it introduces the diverse applications of encapsulation technology in food, encompassing areas such as antioxidant, protein activity, physical stability, controlled release, delivery, antibacterial, and probiotics. The potential impact of encapsulation technology is expected to make encapsulation technology a major process and research hotspot in the food industry. Future research directions include applications of encapsulation for enzymes, microencapsulation of biosensors, and novel technologies such as self-assembly. This study provides a valuable theoretical reference for the in-depth research and wide application of encapsulation technology in the food industry.

The complex of tannic acid and cetylpyridinium chloride: An antibacterial and stain-removal cleaner for aligners

INTRODUCTION

Effective aligner hygiene is recognized as an important part of orthodontic treatments and oral hygiene. However, there is no effective cleansing method for removable aligners.

METHODS

In this study, we incorporated tannic acid (TA) with cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) to develop the TA-CPC complex. The antibacterial properties of 15.8 mg/mL TA-CPC against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were evaluated in vitro, which were compared with 5.1 mg/mL TA, 10.7 mg/mL CPC, a commercial denture cleansing solution (YA; 15 mg/mL), and water. As for the assessment of stain-removal ability, the aligners stained by coffee were soaked in cleansing solutions, and the color changes (ΔE∗) were calculated on the basis of the CIE L∗a∗b∗ color system, and the National Bureau of Standards system was used for the clinical interpretation of the color change. Atomic force microscope examination, tensile property assessment, and wavelength dispersive x-ray fluorescence analysis were performed to investigate the material compatibility of TA-CPC, and Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and live/dead assay were used to test the cytotoxicity of TA-CPC.

RESULTS

The results showed that TA-CPC had a positive zeta-potential, and cation-π interaction changed the chemical environments of the phenyl group in TA-CPC, resulting in greater inhibition zones of S. aureus and E. coli than other cleaners. The quantification of the biofilm biomass and the fluorescent intensities also reflected that the TA-CPC solution exhibited better antibacterial ability. As for the ability of stain removal, ΔE∗ value of group TA-CPC was 2.84 ± 0.55, whereas those of stained aligners immersed with deionized distilled water, TA, YA, and CPC were 10.26 ± 0.04, 9.54 ± 0.24, 5.93 ± 0.36, and 4.69 ± 0.35, respectively. The visual inspection and National Bureau of Standards ratings also showed that the color of stained aligners cleansed by TA-CPC was much lighter than those of the other groups. Meanwhile, TA-CPC had good compatibility with the aligner material and cells.

CONCLUSIONS

TA-CPC is a promising strategy to inhibit the formation of biofilms and remove the stains on the aligners safely, which may disinfect the aligners to improve oral health and help keep the transparent appearances of aligners without impacting the morphology and mechanical properties.

Health benefits of saponins and its mechanisms: perspectives from absorption, metabolism, and interaction with gut

Saponins, consisting of sapogenins as their aglycones and carbohydrate chains, are widely found in plants and some marine organisms. Due to the complexity of the structure of saponins, involving different types of sapogenins and sugar moieties, investigation of their absorption and metabolism is limited, which further hinders the explanation of their bioactivities. Large molecular weight and complex structures limit the direct absorption of saponins rendering their low bioavailability. As such, their major modes of action may be due to interaction with the gastrointestinal environment, such as enzymes and nutrients, and interaction with the gut microbiota. Many studies have reported the interaction between saponins and gut microbiota, that is, the effects of saponins on changing the composition of gut microbiota, and gut microbiota playing an indispensable role in the biotransformation of saponins into sapogenins. However, the metabolic routes of saponins by gut microbiota and their mutual interactions are still sparse. Thus, this review summarizes the chemistry, absorption, and metabolic pathways of saponins, as well as their interactions with gut microbiota and impacts on gut health, to better understand how saponins exert their health-promoting functions.

Oat Milk Tea Model System: Exploring the Stability of Milk Tea and the Bioaccessibility of Green Tea Polyphenols

Oat milk has become preferential because of its low calorie nature and high dietary fiber content, but its ability to “curdle” when mixed with tea can affect the consumer acceptability for oat milk tea. In this study, a model system for oat milk tea was made by combining oat milk and green tea extract to evaluate the impacts of the oat milk matrix and green tea extract concentration on the stability and polyphenol bioaccessibility. The stability analysis results showed that adding green tea extract to oat milk influenced the stability of the oat milk tea model systems. In contrast, the 3.0% fat oat milk tea model system exhibited a higher stability than the 1.5% fat oat milk tea model system. In simulated gastrointestinal digestive experiments, tea polyphenols in the oat milk tea model systems were relatively stable in oral and stomach digestive stages, while they clearly degraded in the small intestine digestive stage. Furthermore, the bioaccessibility of tea polyphenols was higher for the 3.0% fat oat milk tea model system than for the 1.5% fat oat milk tea model system, especially at low concentrations of green tea extracts (0.05%~0.25%). These results may provide a theoretical reference and data for the formulation of oat milk tea and the bioaccessibility of tea polyphenols in food matrices.

Characterization of the interaction between boscalid and tannic acid and its effect on the antioxidant properties of tannic acid

The binding of pesticide residues and fruit components may have a profound impact on pesticide dissipation and the functional characteristics of the corresponding components. Therefore, the interaction between boscalid and tannic acid (TA, a representative phenolic in fruit) was systematically investigated using spectroscopic, thermodynamic, and computational chemistry methods. A separable system was designed to obtain the boscalid-TA complex. Fourier transform infrared and ¹ H-NMR spectroscopies indicated the formation of hydrogen bonds in the complex. Isothermal titration calorimetry showed that the complex bound spontaneously through hydrophobic interactions (ΔG < 0, ΔH > 0, ΔS > 0), with a binding constant of 6.0 × 10⁵  M^-1 at 298 K. The molecular docking results further confirmed the formation of hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions in the complex at the molecular level, with a binding energy of -8.43 kcal mol^-1 . In addition, the binding of boscalid to TA significantly decreased the antioxidant activity of TA. The binding of boscalid residue to TA was characterized at the molecular level, which significantly reduced the in vitro antioxidant properties of TA. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study provides a reference for the molecular mechanisms of the interaction between pesticide residues and food matrices, as well as a basis for regulating bound-state pesticide residues in food.

Modulating aroma release of flavour oil emulsion based on mucoadhesive property of tannic acid

Flavour is a crucial sensory element that determines the consumers' preference for food and beverages. In this study, we determined the effects of complex gum arabic (GA) and tannic acid (TA) on the aroma release of flavour oil emulsions in vitro by simulating oral processing conditions. GA and TA were used to stabilize flavour oil emulsions. Visualization of in vitro retention using ex vivo porcine tongue, detection of aroma release in the model mouth, and sensory evaluation of flavour emulsions were performed to determine the effect of TA and GA. The results indicated that the retention of emulsions and the release of aroma compounds were modulated by TA and GA, which could be because of interactions that occurred between GA and TA in emulsions and mucins on the tongue. GA enhanced aroma release, whereas TA contributed to the retention or slow release of target aroma compounds.

Recent progresses in the delivery of β-carotene: From nano/microencapsulation to bioaccessibility

Beta-carotene (BC) as an efficient pro-vitamin is effective in improving vision, immune system and cognitive function as well as preventing coronary diseases and cancer. However, besides its poor chemical stability, the high lipophilic nature of BC reduces its dispersibility and consequently bioavailability which limits its application into food, pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals. Different carriers with vesicular or particulate structures have been studied and utilized for promoting BC solubility, dispersibility, and protection against diverse operational or environmental stresses and also controlling BC release and subsequent bioaccessibility. The current study, therefore reviews different micro/nanocarriers reported on BC encapsulation with special focusing on its bioavailability. Liposomal structures have been successfully used for enhancing BC stability and bioavailability. Besides, emulsion-based carriers including Pickering emulsions, nanoemulsions and microemulsions have been widely evaluated for BC encapsulation and protection. In addition, lipid-based nanoparticles and nanostructural carriers have also been applied successfully for this context. Moreover, gel structures including emulgels, hydrogels and oleogels are studied in some researches. Most of these delivery systems led to higher hydro-solubility and dispersibility of BC which consequently increased its bioavailability; thereupon could promote its application into food, cosmetic and nutraceutical products. However, for remarkable incorporation of BC and other bioactive compounds into edible products, the safety and toxicological aspects of these delivery system especially those designed in nano scale should be addressed in the further researches.

A review of recent progress in improving the bioavailability of nutraceutical-loaded emulsions after oral intake

Increasing awareness of the health benefits of specific constituents in fruits, vegetables, cereals, and other whole foods has sparked a broader interest in the potential health benefits of nutraceuticals. Many nutraceuticals are hydrophobic substances, which means they must be encapsulated in colloidal delivery systems. Oil-in-water emulsions are one of the most widely used delivery systems for improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of these nutraceuticals. The composition and structure of emulsions can be designed to improve the water dispersibility, physicochemical stability, and bioavailability of the encapsulated nutraceuticals. The nature of the emulsion used influences the interfacial area and properties of the nutraceutical-loaded oil droplets in the gastrointestinal tract, which influences their digestion, as well as the bioaccessibility, metabolism, and absorption of the nutraceuticals. In this article, we review recent in vitro and in vivo studies on the utilization of emulsions to improve the bioavailability of nutraceuticals. The findings from this review should facilitate the design of more efficacious nutraceutical-loaded emulsions with increased bioactivity.

Review on the Regulation of Plant Polyphenols on the Stability of Polyunsaturated-Fatty-Acid-Enriched Emulsions: Partitioning Kinetic and Interfacial Engineering

The plant polyphenols are normally presented as natural functional antioxidants, which also possess the potential ability to improve the physicochemical stability of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-enriched emulsions by interface engineering. This review discussed the potential effects of polyphenols on the stability of PUFA-enriched emulsions from the perspective of the molecular thermodynamic antioxidative analysis, the kinetic of interfacial partitioning, and the covalent and non-covalent interactions with emulsifiers. Recently, research studies have proven that the interfacial structure of emulsions can be concurrently optimized via promoting interfacial partitioning of polyphenols and further increasing interfacial thickness and strength. Moreover, the applied limitations of polyphenols in PUFA-enriched emulsions were summarized, and then some valuable and constructive viewpoints were put forward in this review to provide guidance for the use of polyphenols in constructing PUFA-enriched emulsions.

Influence of interfacial characteristics and antioxidant polarity on the chemical stability of β-carotene in emulsions prepared using non-ionic surfactant blends

To evaluate the effects of characteristics of the interfacial region and physical location of antioxidants on the chemical stability of β-carotene in emulsions, β-carotene-loaded emulsions were prepared with the blends of surfactants with different hydrophilic head sizes (ethylene oxide (EO) unit number). In addition, antioxidants having the different solubilities, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and lauryl gallate as lipophilic and amphiphilic antioxidants, respectively, were incorporated into emulsions. Decrease in the average EO unit number at interfacial region by surfactant blending did not affect the stability of β-carotene in emulsions at neutral pH but it had a positive effect on the β-carotene stability at acidic pH. Decrease in the average EO unit number at interfacial region reduced the ability of antioxidants, regardless of their polarity, to protect β-carotene in emulsions at neutral and acidic pH. TBHQ was more effective in retarding β-carotene degradation than lauryl gallate, independent of the interfacial composition and surfactant concentration.

Biomedical applications of tannic acid

Tannic Acid (TA) is a naturally occurring antioxidant polyphenol that has gained popularity over the past decade in the field of biomedical research for its unique biochemical properties. Tannic acid, typically extracted from oak tree galls, has been used in many important historical applications. TA is a key component in vegetable tanning of leather, iron gall ink, red wines, and as a traditional medicine to treat a variety of maladies. The basis of TA utility is derived from its many hydroxyl groups and its affinity for forming hydrogen bonds with proteins and other biomolecules. Today, the study of TA has led to the development of many new pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. TA has been shown to reduce inflammation as an antioxidant, act as an antibiotic in common pathogenic bacterium, and induce apoptosis in several cancer types. TA has also displayed antiviral and antifungal activity. At certain concentrations, TA can be used to treat gastrointestinal disorders such as hemorrhoids and diarrhea, severe burns, and protect against neurodegenerative diseases. TA has also been utilized in biomaterials research as a natural crosslinking agent to improve mechanical properties of natural and synthetic hydrogels and polymers, while also imparting anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer activity to the materials. TA has also been used to develop thin film coatings and nanoparticles for drug delivery. In all, TA is fascinating molecule with a wide variety of potential uses in pharmaceuticals, biomaterials applications, and drug delivery strategies.

Recent Developments in the Formulation and Use of Polymers and Particles of Plant-based Origin for Emulsion Stabilizations

The main scope of this Review was the recent progress in the use of plant-based polymers and particles for the stabilization of Pickering and non-Pickering emulsion systems. Due to their availability and promising performance, it was discussed how the source, modification, and formulation of cellulose, starch, protein, and lignin-based polymers and particles would impact their emulsion stabilization. Special attention was given toward the material synthesis in two forms of polymeric surfactants and particles and the corresponding formulated emulsions. Also, the effects of particle size, degree of aggregation, wettability, degree of substitution, and electrical charge in stabilizing oil/water systems and micro- and macro-structures of oil droplets were discussed. The wide range of applications using such plant-based stabilizers in different technologies as well as their challenge and future perspectives were described.

Plant-Based Colloidal Delivery Systems for Bioactives

The supplementation of plant-based foods and beverages with bioactive agents may be an important strategy for increasing human healthiness. Numerous kinds of colloidal delivery systems have been developed to encapsulate bioactives with the goal of improving their water dispersibility, chemical stability, and bioavailability. In this review, we focus on colloidal delivery systems assembled entirely from plant-based ingredients, such as lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, phospholipids, and surfactants isolated from botanical sources. In particular, the utilization of these ingredients to create plant-based nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, and microgels is covered. The utilization of these delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and release various kinds of bioactives is highlighted, including oil-soluble vitamins (like vitamin D), ω-3 oils, carotenoids (vitamin A precursors), curcuminoids, and polyphenols. The functionality of these delivery systems can be tailored to specific applications by careful selection of ingredients and processing operations, as this enables the composition, size, shape, internal structure, surface chemistry, and electrical characteristics of the colloidal particles to be controlled. The plant-based delivery systems discussed in this article may be useful for introducing active ingredients into the next generation of plant-based foods, meat, seafood, milk, and egg analogs. Nevertheless, there is still a need to systematically compare the functional performance of different delivery systems for specific applications to establish the most appropriate one. In addition, there is a need to test their efficacy at delivering bioavailable forms of bioactives using in vivo studies.

Standardized methods for testing the quality attributes of plant-based foods: Milk and cream alternatives

The food industry is creating a diverse range of plant-based alternatives to dairy products, such as milks, creams, yogurts, and cheeses due to the increasing demand from consumers for more sustainable, healthy, and ethical products. These dairy alternatives are often designed to mimic the desirable physicochemical, functional, and sensory properties of real dairy products, such as their appearance, texture, mouthfeel, flavor, and shelf-life. At present, there is a lack of systematic testing methods to characterize the properties of plant-based dairy alternatives. The purpose of this review is to critically evaluate existing methods and recommend a series of standardized tests that could be used to quantify the properties of fluid plant-based milk alternatives (milk and cream). These methods could then be used to facilitate the design of milk alternatives with somewhat similar attributes as real dairy milk by comparing their properties under standardized conditions. Moreover, they could be used to facilitate comparison of the properties of milk alternatives developed in different laboratories.

Advances in edible nanoemulsions: Digestion, bioavailability, and potential toxicity

The design, fabrication, and application of edible nanoemulsions for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive agents has been a highly active research field over the past decade or so. In particular, they have been widely used for the encapsulation and delivery of hydrophobic bioactive substances, such as hydrophobic drugs, lipids, vitamins, and phytochemicals. A great deal of progress has been made in creating stable edible nanoemulsions that can increase the stability and efficacy of these bioactive agents. This article highlights some of the most important recent advances within this area, including increasing the water-dispersibility of bioactives, protecting bioactives from chemical degradation during storage, increasing the bioavailability of bioactives after ingestion, and targeting the release of bioactives within the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, it highlights progress that is being made in creating plant-based edible nanoemulsions. Finally, the potential toxicity of edible nanoemulsions is considered.

Effect of emulsifiers on linseed oil emulsion structure, lipolysis and oxidation during in vitro digestion

Health benefits have been associated with the consumption of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Linseed oil is rich in long chain omega-3 PUFA, but can generate toxic compounds due to its high susceptibility to oxidation. The nature of the emulsifier can affect both lipolysis and oxidation during digestion since these phenomena occur at the oil-water interface. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of low-molecular weight surfactants (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), Citrem), protein (sodium caseinate, fish gelatin) and polysaccharides (gum arabic, modified starch) on the structure of linseed oil emulsions, lipolysis and formation of reactive oxidation species during in vitro digestion. The emulsion stabilized with Citrem underwent extensive coalescence in the gastric phase, which strongly decreased the extent of lipid digestion and reduced the formation of oxidation markers relative to other emulsions. Emulsions stabilized by proteins and modified starch showed aggregation with partial coalescence in the gastric phase, but protein-stabilized emulsions showed better resistance to oxidation. This study shows that emulsifier properties affect the susceptibility of the emulsion to aggregation and coalescence in the gastrointestinal environment, and strongly influence the extent of lipid digestion and the formation of reactive oxidation products. These findings point out the importance of the choice of the emulsifier to control the lipid digestibility and the protection of sensible lipids thus promoting optimal nutritional properties in omega-3-enriched foods.

Effect of dispersed form on the bioavailability of β-carotene from daily intake in humans

In a randomized double-blind crossover study, a canned beverage was prepared using an emulsion dispersion formulation (EM) of β-carotene and a crystal dispersion formulation (CR) of β-carotene; the beverages were ingested by human subjects daily for 2 weeks to compare the β-carotene bioavailability. EM-β-carotene enhanced the β-carotene concentrations in human plasma approximately 4-fold, but CR-β-carotene showed no statistically significant enhancement. Bioaccessibility is the ratio of the solubilized fraction to the whole amount ingested. Bioaccessibility of β-carotene from EM-β-carotene was higher than that from CR-β-carotene in an in vitro digestion test. Contrarily, β-carotene from CR-β-carotene, consists of all-trans-β-carotene, was higher than that from EM-β-carotene, consists of a mixture of cis and all-trans-β-carotene, on the uptake by intestinal Caco-2 cells, suggesting that bioaccessibility was a critical factor in β-carotene bioavailability in this study. EM-β-carotene thus has potential as a food coloring agent with value added because it enhances β-carotene bioavailability.

Impact of pH, ferrous ions, and tannic acid on lipid oxidation in plant-based emulsions containing saponin-coated flaxseed oil droplets

The influence of pH (pH 3, 5 and 7), ferrous ions (0 or 100 μM Fe²⁺), and tannic acid (0 to 0.1% TA) on the rate of lipid oxidation in plant-based emulsions containing quillaja saponin-coated flaxseed oil droplets was studied. Tannic acid formed complexes with Fe²⁺ whose properties depended on TA:Fe²⁺ ratio and pH. Emulsions were incubated at 37 °C in the dark, and changes in their particle size, surface potential, appearance, microstructure, and lipid oxidation status were monitored over time. The initial ζ-potential and mean particle diameter of the emulsions were -68 mV and 0.18 μm, respectively. In the absence of TA, the particle size increased appreciably during storage due to droplet coalescence, as rapid oxidation occurred. In the presence of TA, the emulsions were more resistant to both droplet aggregation and lipid oxidation, as a result of its strong ferrous ion-binding properties. The lipid oxidation rate increased with decreasing pH, which was attributed to an increase in ferrous ion's water-solubility and activity in acidic solutions. The addition of Fe²⁺ greatly accelerated lipid oxidation, but the oxidation rate was decreased by also adding TA. These results suggest that tannic acid is an effective antioxidant in emulsions, which can be attributed to its ferrous ion-chelation properties.

Development of Next-Generation Nutritionally Fortified Plant-Based Milk Substitutes: Structural Design Principles

Consumers are increasingly interested in decreasing their dietary intake of animal-based food products, due to health, sustainability, and ethical concerns. For this reason, the food industry is creating new products from plant-based ingredients that simulate many of the physicochemical and sensory attributes associated with animal-derived foods, including milk, eggs, and meat. An understanding of how the ingredient type, amount, and organization influence the desirable physicochemical, sensory, and nutritional attributes of these plant-based foods is required to achieve this goal. A potential problem with plant-based diets is that they lack key micronutrients, such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, and ω-3 fatty acids. The aim of this review is to present the science behind the creation of next-generation nutritionally fortified plant-based milk substitutes. These milk-like products may be formed by mechanically breaking down certain plant materials (including nuts, seeds, and legumes) to produce a dispersion of oil bodies and other colloidal matter in water, or by forming oil-in-water emulsions by homogenizing plant-based oils and emulsifiers with water. A brief overview of the formulation and fabrication of plant-based milks is given. The relationship between the optical properties, rheology, and stability of plant-based milks and their composition and structure is then covered. Approaches to fortify these products with micronutrients that may be missing from a plant-based diet are also highlighted. In conclusion, this article highlights how the knowledge of structural design principles can be used to facilitate the creation of higher quality and more sustainable plant-based food products.