1
|
Nguyen QB, Kim C, Hwang I. Roles of silica coating on nanosized zero-valent iron in sequential reduction-oxidation process in a system containing persulfate. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 480:135946. [PMID: 39326144 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2024] [Revised: 09/07/2024] [Accepted: 09/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
A sequential reduction-oxidation process using silica-coated nanosized zero-valent iron (nZVI) particles (nZVI@SiO2) and persulfate for mineralizing recalcitrant compounds was developed, and the effects of the process on nitrobenzene were evaluated. This sequential process significantly enhanced contaminant mineralization, which could not be effectively achieved by reduction or oxidation alone. The nZVI@SiO2 rapidly reduced nitrobenzene to aniline, then the aniline concentration gradually decreased after persulfate had been added and initiated sequential oxidative degradation. The SiO2 coating on the nZVI@SiO2 limited outward mass transfer of reaction products and increased the efficiency with which nitrobenzene was converted into aniline. Slow release of Fe(II) caused by the coating caused persulfate activation and subsequent aniline oxidation to be more sustained and efficient than without the coating. The final nitrobenzene-aniline mineralization efficiency was higher for the nZVI@SiO2/persulfate system than the nZVI/persulfate system. The SiO2 coating of the nZVI@SiO2 particles was an excellent protective layer, protecting the particles from undesirable consumption through reactions with groundwater components. nZVI@SiO2 particle transformations during the sequential process were investigated, and the operating conditions were optimized to maximize the recalcitrant compound removal efficiency. The results indicated that nZVI@SiO2 and persulfate could be used to mineralize organic contaminants in groundwater through sequential reduction-oxidation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quoc Bien Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil 2, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
| | - Cheolyong Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil 2, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, Franziska-Braun-Straße 7, Darmstadt 64287, Germany; Department of Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, 119 Academy-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea.
| | - Inseong Hwang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil 2, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Peng Y, Bian Z, Wang F, Li S, Xu S, Wang H. Electrocatalytic degradation of p-nitrophenol on metal-free cathode: Superoxide radical (O 2•-) production via molecular oxygen activation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 462:132797. [PMID: 37865078 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Although metal-free electrodes in molecular oxygen-activated Fenton-like wastewater treatment technologies have been developed, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation mechanisms are still not sufficiently clear. As a typical example of refractory phenolic wastewater, p-nitrophenol (PNP) has been widely studied. This study demonstrated the critical role of superoxide radicals (O2•-) in PNP degradation by metal-free electrodes through electron spin resonance (ESR), ROS quenching, and density functional theory (DFT) tests. The most superior metal-free electrode exhibited a mass activity of approximately 133.5 h-1 gcatalyst-1. Experimental and theoretical studies revealed the mechanism of O2•- generation via oxygen activation, including one- and three-electron transfer pathways, and found that O2•- mainly attacked the nitro group of PNP to degrade and transform the pollutant. This study enhances the mechanistic understanding of metal-free materials in the electrochemical degradation of refractory pollutants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yiyin Peng
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Zhaoyong Bian
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China.
| | - Feng Wang
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Shunlin Li
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Shiwei Xu
- Beijing Capital Eco-Environment Protection Group Co., Ltd., Beijing 100044, PR China
| | - Hui Wang
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Xiong Y, Zhou T, Bao J, Du J, Faheem M, Luo L. Degradation mechanism of Bisphenol S via hydrogen peroxide/persulfate activated by sulfidated nanoscale zero valent iron. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:83545-83557. [PMID: 37341938 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28189-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Fenton-like oxidation processes are widely used to degrade recalcitrant organic pollutants, but are limited by narrow application pH and low reaction efficiency. This study investigated the synchronous activation of H2O2 and persulfate (PDS) by sulfidated zero valent iron (S-nZVI) in ambient conditions for Fenton-like oxidation of bisphenol S (BPS), an estrogenic endocrine-disrupting chemical. The activation of S-nZVI induced H2O2 or PDS could be greatly enhanced with the assistance of PDS and H2O2, respectively, even across a wide range of pH value (3-11). The first-order rate constant of S-nZVI/H2O2/PDS, S-nZVI/PDS and S-nZVI/H2O2 systems was found to be 0.2766 min-1, 0.0436 min-1, and 0.0113 min-1, respectively. A significant synergy between H2O2 and PDS was achieved when the PDS-H2O2 molar ratio was above 1:1, and where sulfidation promoted iron corrosion and decreased solution pH were observed in the S-nZVI/H2O2/PDS system. Radical scavenging experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) investigations suggest that both SO4•- and •OH were generated and that •OH played a crucial role in BPS removal. Furthermore, four BPS degradation intermediates were detected and three degradation pathways were proposed in line with the HPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis. This study demonstrated that compared to the traditional Fenton-like system, the S-nZVI/H2O2/PDS system could be a more efficient, advanced oxidation technology capable of being used across a broad pH range for emerging pollutants' degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yehan Xiong
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Ting Zhou
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Jianguo Bao
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Jiangkun Du
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Muhammad Faheem
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Liting Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Han M, Wang H, Jin W, Chu W, Xu Z. The performance and mechanism of iron-mediated chemical oxidation: Advances in hydrogen peroxide, persulfate and percarbonate oxidation. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 128:181-202. [PMID: 36801034 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Many studies have successfully built iron-mediated materials to activate or catalyze Fenton-like reactions, with applications in water and wastewater treatment being investigated. However, the developed materials are rarely compared with each other regarding their performance of organic contaminant removal. In this review, the recent advances of Fenton-like processes in homogeneous and heterogeneous ways are summarized, especially the performance and mechanism of activators including ferrous iron, zero valent iron, iron oxides, iron-loaded carbon, zeolite, and metal organic framework materials. Also, this work mainly compares three O-O bond containing oxidants including hydrogen dioxide, persulfate, and percarbonate, which are environmental-friendly oxidants and feasible for in-situ chemical oxidation. The influence of reaction conditions, catalyst properties and benefits are analyzed and compared. In addition, the challenges and strategies of these oxidants in applications and the major mechanisms of the oxidation process have been discussed. This work can help understand the mechanistic insights of variable Fenton-like reactions, the role of emerging iron-based materials, and provide guidance for choosing appropriate technologies when facing real-world water and wastewater applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengqi Han
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Hui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wei Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zuxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chakinala N, Ranjan P, Chakinala AG, Gogate PR. Performance comparison of photocatalysts for degradation of organic pollutants using experimental studies supported with DFT and fundamental characterization. CATAL COMMUN 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2022.106589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
|
6
|
Lin Y, Hou A, Li H, Shi C, Chen L, Yuan B, Liu Y, Wang Y, Liu X. Synergistic and efficient degradation of acid red 73 by using UV, H2O2, and PDS under neutral conditions: water matrix effects and transformation pathways. RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11164-022-04870-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
7
|
Liu H, Fu P, Liu F, Hou Q, Tong Z, Bi W. Degradation of ciprofloxacin by persulfate activated with pyrite: mechanism, acidification and tailwater reuse. RSC Adv 2022; 12:29991-30000. [PMID: 36321107 PMCID: PMC9582745 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra05412d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Residues of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in the environment pose a threat to human health and ecosystems. This study investigated the degradation of CIP by persulfate (PS) activated with pyrite (FeS2). Results showed that when [CIP] = 30 μM, [FeS2] = 2.0 g L-1, and [PS] = 1 mM, the CIP removal rate could reach 94.4% after 60 min, and CIP mineralization rate reached 34.9%. The main free radicals that degrade CIP were SO4˙- and HO˙, with contributions of 34.4% and 35.7%, respectively. Additionally, compared to the control (ultrapure water), CIP in both tap water and river water was not degraded. However, acidification could eliminate the inhibition of CIP degradation in tap water and river water. Furthermore, acidic tailwater from CIP degradation could be utilized to adjust the pH of untreated CIP, which could greatly promote the degradation of CIP and further reduce disposal costs. The reaction solution was not significantly biotoxic and three degradation pathways of CIP were investigated. Based on the above results and the characterization of FeS2, the mechanism of CIP degradation in the FeS2/PS system was that FeS2 activated PS to generate Fe(iii) and SO4˙-. The sulfide in FeS2 reduced Fe(iii) to Fe(ii), thus achieving an Fe(iii)/Fe(ii) cycle for CIP degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| | - Peng Fu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| | - Fenwu Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| | - Qingjie Hou
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| | - Zhenye Tong
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| | - Wenlong Bi
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University Shanxi 030801 China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liu H, Liu F, Zhang J, Zhou J, Bi W, Qin J, Hou Q, Ni Y, Xu S, Yang C. Degradation of methyl orange by pyrite activated persulfate oxidation: mechanism, pathway and influences of water substrates. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 85:2912-2927. [PMID: 35638796 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Degradation mechanism of methyl orange (MO), a typical azo dye, with pyrite (FeS2) activated persulfate (PS) was explored. The results showed that when the initial concentration of MO was 0.1 mM, FeS2 was 1.6 g/L and PS was 1.0 mM, the removal rate of MO could reach 92.9% in 150 min, and the removal rate of total organic carbon could reach 14.1%. In addition, both pH ≤ 2 and pH ≥ 10 could have an inhibitory effect in the FeS2/PS system. Furthermore, Cl- and low concentrations of HCO-3 had little effect on the degradation of MO with FeS2/PS. However, H2PO-4 and high concentrations of HCO-3 could inhibit the degradation of MO in the system. Besides, MO in river water and tap water were not degraded in FeS2/PS system, but acidification (pH = 4) would greatly promote the degradation. In addition, the removal rate of MO with FeS2/PS could still reach about 90% after five cycles of FeS2. Furthermore, the intermediates and possible degradation pathways were speculated by LC-MS, and the degradation mechanism of MO by FeS2/PS was that the cycle of Fe(III)/Fe(II) could continuously activate persulfate to produce SO4•-. The results could provide technical support for azo dye degradation in the FeS2/PS system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Fenwu Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Jian Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Jiaxing Zhou
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Wenlong Bi
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Junmei Qin
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Qingjie Hou
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Yue Ni
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Shaozu Xu
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| | - Chen Yang
- College of Resources and Environment, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, PR China E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fei J, Peng X, Jiang L, Yuan X, Chen X, Zhao Y, Zhang W. Recent advances in graphitic carbon nitride as a catalyst for heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:16887-16908. [PMID: 34734599 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt02367e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), an appealing metal-free polymer, has featured in extensive research in heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions owing to its advantages of stable chemical and thermal properties, ease of structural regulation and unique redox ability. However, there are still some gaps in the understanding of the mechanism and fate of g-C3N4 and its derivatives in heterogeneous Fenton reaction degradation of contaminants. This paper gives systematic emphasis to the development and progress of g-C3N4 and its composites as catalysts in heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions. The main synthesis strategies of g-C3N4 composites are discussed, including calcination, hydrothermal method and self-assembly method. Then, the key catalytic properties of g-C3N4 in Fenton-like applications, including anchoring nanoparticles, increasing specific surface area and exposed active surface sites, as well as regulating charge transfer reactions, are highlighted. Special emphasis is placed on its multifunctional role in heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions and the mechanisms involved in the activation of hydrogen peroxide, persulfates, and photocatalytic activation of persulfate. Lastly, the existing challenges and possible development direction of g-C3N4-coupling Fenton reactions are proposed. It is believed that this paper will bring useful information for the development of graphitic carbon nitride in both laboratory studies and practical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Fei
- National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for New Petrochemical Materials and Fine Utilization of Resources, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Traditional Chinese Medicine Research (Ministry of Education of China), Key Laboratory of the Assembly and Application of Organic Functional Molecules of Hunan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
| | - Xin Peng
- National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for New Petrochemical Materials and Fine Utilization of Resources, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Traditional Chinese Medicine Research (Ministry of Education of China), Key Laboratory of the Assembly and Application of Organic Functional Molecules of Hunan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
| | - Longbo Jiang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China. .,Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Xingzhong Yuan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China. .,Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Xiangyan Chen
- National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for New Petrochemical Materials and Fine Utilization of Resources, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Traditional Chinese Medicine Research (Ministry of Education of China), Key Laboratory of the Assembly and Application of Organic Functional Molecules of Hunan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
| | - Yanlan Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China. .,Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Wei Zhang
- National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for New Petrochemical Materials and Fine Utilization of Resources, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Traditional Chinese Medicine Research (Ministry of Education of China), Key Laboratory of the Assembly and Application of Organic Functional Molecules of Hunan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Silvestri D, Wacławek S, Sobel B, Torres–Mendieta R, Pawlyta M, Padil VV, Filip J, Černík M. Modification of nZVI with a bio-conjugate containing amine and carbonyl functional groups for catalytic activation of persulfate. Sep Purif Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
11
|
Fe3O4-Zeolite Hybrid Material as Hetero-Fenton Catalyst for Enhanced Degradation of Aqueous Ofloxacin Solution. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10111241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A hetero-Fenton catalyst comprising of Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded on zeolite (FeZ) has been synthesized using a facile co-precipitation method. The catalyst was characterized using various characterization methods and then, subsequently, was used to degrade ofloxacin (OFL, 20 mg·L−1), an antibiotic, via a heterogeneous Fenton process in the presence of an oxidizing agent. The effects of different parameters such as Fe3O4 loading on zeolite, catalyst loading, initial solution pH, initial OFL concentration, different oxidants, H2O2 dosage, reaction temperature, and inorganic salts were studied to determine the performance of the FeZ catalyst towards Fenton degradation of OFL under different conditions. Experimental results revealed that as much as 88% OFL and 51.2% total organic carbon (TOC) could be removed in 120 min using the FeZ catalyst. Moreover, the FeZ composite catalyst showed good stability for Fenton degradation of OFL even after five cycles, indicating that the FeZ catalyst could be a good candidate for wastewater remediation.
Collapse
|