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Kozieł S, Wojtala D, Szmitka M, Kędzierski P, Bieńko D, Komarnicka UK. Insights into the binding of half-sandwich phosphino Ir(III) and Ru(II) complexes to deoxyribonucleic acid, albumin and apo-transferrin: Experimental and theoretical investigation. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 304:123289. [PMID: 37651843 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.123289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
A group of cytotoxic half-sandwich iridium(III) (Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (IrPOH)), (Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (IrMPOH)), and ruthenium(II) (Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (RuPOH), Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (RuMPOH)) complexes with phosphine ligands exhibit the ability to (i) slow hydrolysis which is reversed by adding a high NaCl concentration; (ii) oxidation of NADH to NAD+; (iii) induction of cytotoxicity towards various cancer cell lines. Furthermore, we found that RuPOH and RuMPOH selectively inhibit the proliferation of skin cancer cells (WM266-4) while Ir(III) complexes were found to be moderate against prostate cancer cells (DU-145). Herein, to elucidate the cytotoxic effects, we investigated the interaction of these complexes with DNA and serum proteins by gel electrophoresis, fluorescence spectroscopy, and molecular docking studies. Fluorescence spectroscopic data (calf thymus DNA: CT-DNA titration), together with analysis of DNA fragmentation (gel electrophoresis) and molecular docking provided evidence for the multimodal interaction of Ir(III) and Ru(III) complexes with DNA with predominance of intercalation and minor groove binding. All examined complexes caused single-stranded cleavage of the sugar-phosphate backbone of plasmid DNA. The affinity of the complexes for apo-transferrin (apo-Tf) and human serum albumin (HSA) was evaluated by fluorescence emission spectroscopy to calculate the binding constants which suggested a tight and reversible binding. Moreover, ruthenium complexes can mimic the binding of iron compounds to specific biomolecules such as albumin and transferrin better than iridium complexes. In silico study indicate that complexes mostly bind to (i) apo-Tf with a preference for a single binding site and/or (ii) to dock within all the four predicted binding sites of HSA with the predominance of site I which include tryptophan residues of HSA. This class of ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) complexes has unusual features worthy of further exploration in the design of novel anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Daria Wojtala
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Szmitka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Kędzierski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Dariusz Bieńko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Urszula K Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland.
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Guo L, Li P, Li J, Gong Y, Li X, Wen T, Wu X, Yang X, Liu Z. Potent Half-Sandwich 16-/18-Electron Iridium(III) and Ruthenium(II) Anticancer Complexes with Readily Available Amine-Imine Ligands. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:21379-21395. [PMID: 38096360 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c03471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis and biological evaluation of stable 16-electron half-sandwich complexes have remained scarce. We herein present the different coordination modes (16-electron or 18-electron) between half-sandwich iridium(III) complexes and ruthenium(II) complexes derived from the same amine-imine ligands chelating hybrid sp3-N/sp2-N donors. The 16-electron iridium(III) and 18-electron ruthenium(II) complexes with different counteranions were obtained and identified by various techniques. The promising cytotoxicity of these complexes against A549 lung cancer cells, cisplatin-resistant A549/DPP cells, cervical carcinoma HeLa cells, and human hepatocellular liver carcinoma HepG2 cells was observed with IC50 values ranging from 5.4 to 16.3 μM. Moreover, these complexes showed a certain selectivity (selectivity index: 2.1-3.7) toward A549 cells and BEAS-2B normal cells. The variation of metal center, counteranion, 16/18-electron coordination mode, and ligand substituents showed little influence on the cytotoxicity and selectivity of these complexes. The mechanism of action study showed that these complexes could target mitochondria, induce the depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane, and promote the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Further, the induction of cell apoptosis and the perturbation of the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase were also observed for these complexes. Overall, it seems that the redox mechanism dominated the anticancer efficacy of these complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihua Guo
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Pengwei Li
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Jiaxing Li
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Yuwen Gong
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Tingjun Wen
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Xinxin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Xinyi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
| | - Zhe Liu
- Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory of Green Natural Products and Pharmaceutical Intermediates in Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, P. R. China
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3
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Afzal M, Alarifi A, Abduh NAY, Ayub A, Muddassir M. Identification of anti-cancer organometallic compounds by inhibition of BCL-2/Bax interactions. Comput Biol Med 2023; 167:107657. [PMID: 37931525 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is regulated by the BCL-2 family, which includes the anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic proteins (Bax, Bok, Bak, etc.). These proteins often interact in dimers and act as apoptotic switches. Anti-apoptotic proteins, such as BCL-2, block the functions of these pro-apoptotic proteins. The pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic protein-protein interactions must be inhibited to prevent tumor cells from escaping apoptosis. This method has been used to develop anticancer drugs by inhibiting BCL-2 with both natural and synthetic compounds. Metal-containing compounds were used as pharmaceuticals for human cancer patients for a long time, and cisplatin was the first candidate of this class. Drug design, however, needs to pay more attention to metal complexes. We have studied the X-ray crystal structure of the BCL-2 protein in detail and identified the hydrophobic nature of the site with two less solvent-accessible sites. Based on the hydrophobic nature of the compounds, 74 organometallic compounds with X-ray crystallographically characterized bioactivity (including anticancer activity) were selected from the Cambridge crystallographic database. For testing, molecular docking was used to determine which compound was most effective against the BCL-2 protein. Organometallic compounds (benzene)-chloro-(1-{[(9H-fluoren-2-yl)imino]methyl}naphthalen-2-olato)-ruthenium (2), (1-((1,1'-biphenyl)-4-yl)-2,3,4,5-tetramethylcyclopentadienyl)-chloro-(4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine)-rhodium hexafluorophosphate (37), (μ-1,1'-(butane-1,4-diyl)bis(3-oxy-2-methylpyridin-4(1H)-one))-dichloro-bis(pentamethyl-cyclopentadienyl)-di-rhodium tetrahydrate (46), (μ-1,1'-(butane-1,4-diyl)bis(3-oxy-2-methylpyridin-4(1H)-one))-dichloro-bis(pentamethyl-cyclopentadienyl)-di-iridium (47) etc are found to be important compounds in this study. The capability of different types of complex interactions was identified using Hirshfeld surface analysis of the complexes. A NCI plot was conducted to understand the nature of the interaction between complex amino acids and active-site amino acids. A DFT study was conducted to examine the stability and chemical reactivity of the selected complexes. Using this study, one suitable hydrophobic lead anti-cancer organometallic pharmaceutical was found that binds at the less solvent-accessible hydrophobic site of BCL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Afzal
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Abdullah Alarifi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naaser A Y Abduh
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Arusha Ayub
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Georgia, P.O. Box-0171, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Mohd Muddassir
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
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He SF, Han WC, Shao YY, Zhang HB, Hong WX, Yang QH, Zhang YQ, He RR, Sun J. Iridium(III) complex induces apoptosis in HeLa cells by regulating mitochondrial and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways: In vitro and in vivo experiments. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106867. [PMID: 37734195 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Cyclometalated iridium complexes with mitochondrial targeting show great potential as substitutes for platinum-based complexes because of their strong anti-cancer properties. Three novel cyclometalated iridium(III) compounds were synthesized and evaluated in five different cell lines as part of the ongoing systematic investigations of these compounds. The complexes were prepared using 4,7-dichloro-1,10-phenanthroline ligands. The cytotoxicity of complexes Ir1-Ir3 towards HeLa cells was shown to be high, with IC50 values of 0.83±0.06, 4.73±0.11, and 4.95±0.62 μM, respectively. Complex Ir1 could be ingested by HeLa cells in 3 h and has shown high selectivity toward mitochondria. Subsequent investigations demonstrated that Ir1 triggered apoptosis in HeLa cells by augmenting the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential, and depleting ATP levels. Furthermore, the movement of cells was significantly suppressed and the progression of the cell cycle was arrested in the G0/G1 phase following the administration of Ir1. The Western blot analysis demonstrated that the induction of apoptosis in HeLa cells by Ir1 involves the activation of the mitochondria-dependent channel and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. No significant cytotoxicity was observed in zebrafish embryos at concentrations less than or equal to 16 µM, e.g., survival rate and developmental abnormalities. In vivo, antitumor assay demonstrated that Ir1 suppressed tumor growth in mice. Therefore, our work shows that complex Ir1 could be a promising candidate for developing novel antitumor drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Fen He
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Wei-Chao Han
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Ying-Ying Shao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Han-Bin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Wen-Xin Hong
- Department of Health, Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Dongguan 523129, China
| | - Qiu-Hong Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Yu-Qing Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Rui-Rong He
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China.
| | - Jing Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China.
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Wojtala D, Kozieł S, Witwicki M, Niorettini A, Guz-Regner K, Bugla-Płoskońska G, Caramori S, Komarnicka UK. Antibactericidal Ir(III) and Ru(II) Complexes with Phosphine-Alkaloid Conjugate and Their Interactions with Biomolecules: A Case of N-Methylphenethylamine. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202301603. [PMID: 37584222 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202301603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
The phosphine ligand (Ph2 PCH2 N(CH3 )(CH2 )2 Ph, PNMPEA) obtained by the reaction of the (hydroxymethyl)diphenylphosphine with naturally occurring alkaloid N-methylphenethylamine, was used to synthesize the half-sandwich iridium(III) (Ir(η5 -Cp*)Cl2 Ph2 PCH2 N(CH3 )(CH2 )2 Ph, IrPNMPEA) and ruthenium(II) (Ru(η6 -p-cymene)Cl2 Ph2 PCH2 N(CH3 )(CH2 )2 Ph, RuPNMPEA) complexes. They were characterized using a vast array of methods, including 1D and 2D NMR, ESI(+)MS spectrometry, elemental analysis, cyclic voltammetry (CV), electron spectroscopy in the UV-Vis range (absorption, fluorescence) and density functional theory (DFT). The initial antimicrobial activity in vitro toward Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains was examined, indicating that both complexes are selective towards Gram-positive bacteria, e. g., Staphylococcus aureus, where the IrPNMPEA has been more bactericidal compared to RuPNMPEA. Additionally, the interactions of these compounds with various biomolecules, such as DNA (ctDNA, plasmid DNA, 9-ethylguanine (9-EtG), and 9-methyladenine (9-MeA)), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), glutathione (GSH), and ascorbic acid (Asc) were described. The results showed that both Ir(III) and Ru(II) complexes accelerate the oxidation process of NADH, GSH and Asc that appeared to occur by an electron transfer mechanism. Interestingly, only IrPNMPEA leads to the formation of various biomolecule adducts, which can explain its higher activity. Furthermore, RuPNMPEA and IrPNMPEA have been interacting with the DNA through weak noncovalent interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Wojtala
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Witwicki
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Alessandro Niorettini
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Katarzyna Guz-Regner
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Gabriela Bugla-Płoskońska
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Stefano Caramori
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Urszula K Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
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Wang L, Liu X, Wu Y, He X, Guo X, Gao W, Tan L, Yuan XA, Liu J, Liu Z. In Vitro and In Vivo Antitumor Assay of Mitochondrially Targeted Fluorescent Half-Sandwich Iridium(III) Pyridine Complexes. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:3395-3408. [PMID: 36763897 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c03333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Half-sandwich iridium(III) complexes show potential value in the anticancer field. However, complexes with favorable luminescence performance are rare, which limits further investigation of the anticancer mechanism. In this paper, 10 triphenylamine-modified fluorescent half-sandwich iridium(III) pyridine complexes {[(η5-Cpx)Ir(L)Cl2]} (Ir1-Ir10) were prepared and showed potential antiproliferative activity, effectively inhibiting the migration of A549 cells. Ir6, showing the best activity among these complexes, exhibited excellent fluorescence performance (absolute fluorescence quantum yield of 15.17%) in solution. Laser confocal detection showed that Ir6 followed an energy-dependent cellular uptake mechanism, specifically accumulating in mitochondria (Pearson co-localization coefficient of 0.95). A Western blot assay further confirmed the existence of a mitochondrial apoptotic channel. Additionally, Ir6 could arrest the cell cycle at the G2/M phase, catalyze NADH oxidation, reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential, induce an increase in the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species, and exhibit a mechanism of oxidation. An in vivo antitumor assay confirmed that Ir6 can effectively inhibit tumor growth and is safer than cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Wang
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Xicheng Liu
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Yuting Wu
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Xian He
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Xiaohui Guo
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Wenshan Gao
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Lin Tan
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Xiang-Ai Yuan
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Jinfeng Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Zhe Liu
- Institute of Anticancer Agents Development and Theranostic Application, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
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Pucelik B, Barzowska A, Czarna A. DYRK1A inhibitors leucettines and TGF-β inhibitor additively stimulate insulin production in beta cells, organoids, and isolated mouse islets. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285208. [PMID: 37195917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The decreased β-cell mass and impaired β-cell functionality are the primary causes of diabetes mellitus (DM). Nevertheless, the underlying molecular mechanisms by which β-cell growth and function are controlled are not fully understood. In this work, we show that leucettines, known to be DYRK1A kinase inhibitors, can improve glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in rodent β-cells and isolated islets, as well as in hiPSC-derived β-cells islets. We confirm that DYRK1A is expressed in murine insulinoma cells MIN6. In addition, we found that treatment with selected leucettines stimulates proliferation of β-cells and promotes MIN6 cell cycle progression to the G2/M phase. This effect is also confirmed by increased levels of cyclin D1, which is highly responsive to proliferative signals. Among other leucettines, leucettine L43 had a negligible impact on β-cell proliferation, but markedly impair GSIS. However, leucettine L41, in combination with LY364947, a, a potent and selective TGF-β type-I receptor, significantly promotes GSIS in various cellular diabetic models, including MIN6 and INS1E cells in 2D and 3D culture, iPSC-derived β-cell islets derived from iPSC, and isolated mouse islets, by increased insulin secretion and decreased glucagon level. Our findings confirm an important role of DYRK1A inhibitors as modulators of β-cells function and suggested a new potential target for antidiabetic therapy. Moreover, we show in detail that leucettine derivatives represent promising antidiabetic agents and are worth further evaluation, especially in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Pucelik
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Barzowska
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Krakow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Czarna
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Krakow, Poland
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Komarnicka UK, Kozieł S, Pucelik B, Barzowska A, Siczek M, Malik M, Wojtala D, Niorettini A, Kyzioł A, Sebastian V, Kopel P, Caramori S, Bieńko A. Liposomal Binuclear Ir(III)–Cu(II) Coordination Compounds with Phosphino-Fluoroquinolone Conjugates for Human Prostate Carcinoma Treatment. Inorg Chem 2022; 61:19261-19273. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c03015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Urszula K. Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Barbara Pucelik
- Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Barzowska
- Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Miłosz Siczek
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Malik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Daria Wojtala
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Alessandro Niorettini
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Agnieszka Kyzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Victor Sebastian
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technologies, University of Zaragoza, Campus Río Ebro-Edificio I+D, Mariano Esquillor S/N, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, CIBER-BBN, 28-029 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragón (INMA), CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Pavel Kopel
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 12, CZ-771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Stefano Caramori
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Alina Bieńko
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
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Malik M, Świtlicka A, Bieńko A, Komarnicka UK, Bieńko DC, Kozieł S, Kyzioł A, Mazur T, Machura B. Copper(ii) complexes with 2-ethylpyridine and related hydroxyl pyridine derivatives: structural, spectroscopic, magnetic and anticancer in vitro studies. RSC Adv 2022; 12:27648-27665. [PMID: 36276031 PMCID: PMC9516696 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra05133h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Copper(ii) complexes with 2-ethylpyridine (1 and 2), 2-(hydroxyethyl)pyridine (3) and 2-(hydroxymethyl)pyridine (4) have been synthesized and characterized. All inorganic compounds have been studied by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, vibrational and EPR spectroscopy as well as theoretical methods. The geometry of the complexes 1, 3 and 4 adopts nearly perfect geometry close to square planar (1, 4) or square pyramid (3) stereochemistry, respectively. The distortion of five coordinated copper(ii) ions in complex 2 indicates intermediate geometry between square pyramidal and trigonal pyramidal geometry. Further, the magnetic measurements have shown antiferromagnetic behaviour of the prepared complexes in a wide range of temperatures. The antiferromagnetic behaviour of 2 should originate from the superexchange interactions between each copper(ii) ion by the mixed chloride and μ4-O ion pathways. Besides, the weak antiferromagnetic character of 2 can be also attributed to the presence of intrachain exchange between dimeric units through double oxide ion. In complex 3, strong antiferromagnetic coupling between Cu(ii) centres in the Cu2O2Cl2 moiety is found. The cytotoxicity of all compounds was tested in vitro against various cancer cell lines: human lung adenocarcinoma (A549), human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7), human prostate carcinoma; derived from metastatic site: brain (DU-145) and two normal cell lines: human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) and human keratinocyte (HaCat). Furthermore, Pluronic P-123 micelles loaded with selected complexes (1 and 3) were proposed to overcome low solubility and to minimize systemic side effects. More detailed study revealed that complex 3 loaded inside micelles causes DU-145 cells' death with simultaneous decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential and a high level of reactive oxygen species generation. The stability of the compounds 1-4 in DMSO was confirmed by UV-Vis and FT-IR spectra studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Malik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wrocław Poland
| | - Anna Świtlicka
- Department of Crystallography, Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia Szkolna 9 40-006 Katowice Poland
| | - Alina Bieńko
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw F. Joliot-Curie 14 50-383 Wrocław Poland
| | - Urszula K Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw F. Joliot-Curie 14 50-383 Wrocław Poland
| | - Dariusz C Bieńko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wrocław Poland
| | - Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw F. Joliot-Curie 14 50-383 Wrocław Poland
| | - Agnieszka Kyzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Gronostajowa 2 30-387 Kraków Poland
| | - Tomasz Mazur
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wrocław Poland
| | - Barbara Machura
- Department of Crystallography, Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia Szkolna 9 40-006 Katowice Poland
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Komarnicka UK, Kozieł S, Skórska-Stania A, Kyzioł A, Tisato F. Synthesis, physicochemical characterization and antiproliferative activity of phosphino Ru(II) and Ir(III) complexes. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:8605-8617. [PMID: 35615959 DOI: 10.1039/d2dt01055k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we present the synthesis of new complexes based on ruthenium(II) (Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (RuPOH) and Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (RuMPOH)) and iridium(III) (Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (IrMPOH) and Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (IrPOH)) containing phosphine ligands with/without methoxy motifs on phenyl rings (P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (MPOH) and PPh2CH2OH (POH)). The complexes were characterized by mass spectrometry, NMR spectroscopy (1D: 1H, 13C{1H}, and 31P{1H} and 2D: HMQC, HMBC, and COSY NMR) and elemental analysis. All the complexes were structurally identified by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The Ru(II) and Ir(III) complexes have a typical piano-stool geometry with an η6-coordinated arene (RuII complexes) or η5-coordinated (IrIII compounds) and three additional sites of ligation occupied by two chloride ligands and the phosphine ligand. Oxidation of NADH to NAD+ with high efficiency was catalyzed by complexes containing P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (IrMPOH and RuMPOH). The catalytic property might have important future applications in biological and medical fields like production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, the redox activity of the complexes was confirmed by cyclic voltamperometry. Biochemical assays demonstrated the ability of Ir(III) and Ru(II) complexes to induce significant cytotoxicity in various cancer cell lines. Furthermore, we found that RuPOH and RuMPOH selectively inhibit the proliferation of skin cancer cells (WM266-4; IC50, after 24 h: av. 48.3 μM; after 72 h: av. 10.2 μM) while Ir(III) complexes were found to be moderate against prostate cancer cells (DU145).
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula K Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland.
| | | | - Agnieszka Kyzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
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Impert O, Kozakiewicz-Piekarz A, Katafias A, Witwicki M, Komarnicka UK, Kurpiewska K, van Eldik R. Mixed-valence outer-sphere RuII/RuIII ion-pair complexes. Synthesis, experimental, and theoretical studies. Polyhedron 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2022.115939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Komarnicka UK, Niorettini A, Kozieł S, Pucelik B, Barzowska A, Wojtala D, Ziółkowska A, Lesiów M, Kyzioł A, Caramori S, Porchia M, Bieńko A. Two out of Three Musketeers Fight against Cancer: Synthesis, Physicochemical, and Biological Properties of Phosphino CuI, RuII, IrIII Complexes. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15020169. [PMID: 35215281 PMCID: PMC8876511 DOI: 10.3390/ph15020169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Two novel phosphine ligands, Ph2PCH2N(CH2CH3)3 (1) and Ph2PCH2N(CH2CH2CH2CH3)2 (2), and six new metal (Cu(I), Ir(III) and Ru(II)) complexes with those ligands: iridium(III) complexes: Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2(1) (1a), Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2(2) (2a) (Cp*: Pentamethylcyclopentadienyl); ruthenium(II) complexes: Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2(1) (1b), Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2(2) (2b) and copper(I) complexes: [Cu(CH3CN)2(1)BF4] (1c), [Cu(CH3CN)2(2)BF4] (2c) were synthesized and characterized using elemental analysis, NMR spectroscopy, and ESI-MS spectrometry. Copper(I) complexes turned out to be highly unstable in the presence of atmospheric oxygen in contrast to ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) complexes. The studied Ru(II) and Ir(III) complexes exhibited promising cytotoxicity towards cancer cells in vitro with IC50 values significantly lower than that of the reference drug—cisplatin. Confocal microscopy analysis showed that Ru(II) and Ir(III) complexes effectively accumulate inside A549 cells with localization in cytoplasm and nuclei. A precise cytometric analysis provided clear evidence for the predominance of apoptosis in induced cell death. Furthermore, the complexes presumably induce the changes in the cell cycle leading to G2/M phase arrest in a dose-dependent manner. Gel electrophoresis experiments revealed that Ru(II) and Ir(III) inorganic compounds showed their unusual low genotoxicity towards plasmid DNA. Additionally, metal complexes were able to generate reactive oxygen species as a result of redox processes, proved by gel electrophoresis and cyclic voltamperometry. In vitro cytotoxicity assays were also carried out within multicellular tumor spheroids and efficient anticancer action on these 3D assemblies was demonstrated. It was proven that the hydrocarbon chain elongation of the phosphine ligand coordinated to the metal ions does not influence the cytotoxic effect of resulting complexes in contrast to metal ions type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula K. Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Alessandro Niorettini
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.N.); (S.C.)
| | - Sandra Kozieł
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
| | - Barbara Pucelik
- Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; (B.P.); (A.B.)
| | - Agata Barzowska
- Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; (B.P.); (A.B.)
| | - Daria Wojtala
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
| | - Aleksandra Ziółkowska
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
| | - Monika Lesiów
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
| | - Agnieszka Kyzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Stefano Caramori
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.N.); (S.C.)
| | | | - Alina Bieńko
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland; (S.K.); (D.W.); (A.Z.); (M.L.); (A.B.)
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Komarnicka UK, Pucelik B, Wojtala D, Lesiów MK, Stochel G, Kyzioł A. Evaluation of anticancer activity in vitro of a stable copper(I) complex with phosphine-peptide conjugate. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23943. [PMID: 34907288 PMCID: PMC8671550 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03352-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
[CuI(2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)P(p-OCH3-Ph)2CH2SarcosineGlycine] (1-MPSG), highly stable in physiological media phosphino copper(I) complex—is proposed herein as a viable alternative to anticancer platinum-based drugs. It is noteworthy that, 1-MPSG significantly and selectively reduced cell viability in a 3D spheroidal model of human lung adenocarcinoma (A549), in comparison with non-cancerous HaCaT cells. Confocal microscopy and an ICP-MS analysis showed that 1-MPSG effectively accumulates inside A549 cells with colocalization in mitochondria and nuclei. A precise cytometric analysis revealed a predominance of apoptosis over the other types of cell death. In the case of HaCaT cells, the overall cytotoxicity was significantly lower, indicating the selective activity of 1-MPSG towards cancer cells. Apoptosis also manifested itself in a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential along with the activation of caspases-3/9. Moreover, the caspase inhibitor (Z-VAD-FMK) pretreatment led to decreased level of apoptosis (more pronouncedly in A549 cells than in non-cancerous HaCaT cells) and further validated the caspases dependence in 1-MPSG-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, the 1-MPSG complex presumably induces the changes in the cell cycle leading to G2/M phase arrest in a dose-dependent manner. It was also observed that the 1-MPSG mediated intracellular ROS alterations in A549 and HaCaT cells. These results, proved by fluorescence spectroscopy, and flow cytometry, suggest that investigated Cu(I) compound may trigger apoptosis also through ROS generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula K Komarnicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Barbara Pucelik
- Małopolska Center of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Daria Wojtala
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Monika K Lesiów
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Grażyna Stochel
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Kyzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Kraków, Poland.
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Panchangam RL, Rao RN, Balamurali MM, Hingamire TB, Shanmugam D, Manickam V, Chanda K. Antitumor Effects of Ir(III)-2 H-Indazole Complexes for Triple Negative Breast Cancer. Inorg Chem 2021; 60:17593-17607. [PMID: 34767343 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c02193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we have synthesized a series of novel C,N-cyclometalated 2H-indazole-ruthenium(II) and -iridium(III) complexes with varying substituents (H, CH3, isopropyl, and CF3) in the R4 position of the phenyl ring of the 2H-indazole chelating ligand. All of the complexes were characterized by 1H, 13C, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and elemental analysis. The methyl-substituted 2H-indazole-Ir(III) complex was further characterized by single-crystal X-ray analysis. The cytotoxic activity of new ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) compounds has been evaluated in a panel of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468) and colon cancer cell line HCT-116 to investigate their structure-activity relationships. Most of these new complexes have shown appreciable activity, comparable to or significantly better than that of cisplatin in TNBC cell lines. R4 substitution of the phenyl ring of the 2H-indazole ligand with methyl and isopropyl substituents showed increased potency in ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) complexes compared to that of their parent compounds in all cell lines. These novel transition metal-based complexes exhibited high specificity toward cancer cells by inducing alterations in the metabolism and proliferation of cancer cells. In general, iridium complexes are more active than the corresponding ruthenium complexes. The new Ir(III)-2H-indazole complex with an isopropyl substituent induced mitochondrial damage by generating large amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which triggered mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis in TNBC cell line MDA-MB-468. Moreover, this complex also induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and inhibited cellular migration of TNBC cells. Our findings reveal the key roles of the novel C-N-cyclometalated 2H-indazole-Ir(III) complex to specifically induce toxicity in cancer cell lines through contributing effects of ROS-induced mitochondrial disruption along with chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA target inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeeva Lochana Panchangam
- Department of Biosciences, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
| | - Ramdas Nishanth Rao
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Science, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
| | - Musuvathi Motilal Balamurali
- Chemistry Division, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai Campus, Chennai 600127, India
| | - Tejashri B Hingamire
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Dhanasekaran Shanmugam
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Venkatraman Manickam
- Department of Biosciences, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
| | - Kaushik Chanda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Science, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
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Interaction between DNA, Albumin and Apo-Transferrin and Iridium(III) Complexes with Phosphines Derived from Fluoroquinolones as a Potent Anticancer Drug. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14070685. [PMID: 34358111 PMCID: PMC8308524 DOI: 10.3390/ph14070685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A group of cytotoxic half-sandwich iridium(III) complexes with aminomethyl(diphenyl)phosphine derived from fluoroquinolone antibiotics exhibit the ability to (i) accumulate in the nucleus, (ii) induce apoptosis, (iii) activate caspase-3/7 activity, (iv) induce the changes in cell cycle leading to G2/M phase arrest, and (v) radicals generation. Herein, to elucidate the cytotoxic effects, we investigated the interaction of these complexes with DNA and serum proteins by gel electrophoresis, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and molecular docking studies. DNA binding experiments established that the complexes interact with DNA by moderate intercalation and predominance of minor groove binding without the capability to cause a double-strand cleavage. The molecular docking study confirmed two binding modes: minor groove binding and threading intercalation with the fluoroquinolone part of the molecule involved in pi stacking interactions and the Ir(III)-containing region positioned within the major or minor groove. Fluorescence spectroscopic data (HSA and apo-Tf titration), together with molecular docking, provided evidence that Ir(III) complexes can bind to the proteins in order to be transferred. All the compounds considered herein were found to bind to the tryptophan residues of HSA within site I (subdomain II A). Furthermore, Ir(III) complexes were found to dock within the apo-Tf binding site, including nearby tyrosine residues.
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