Tumor microenvironment and NIR laser dual-responsive release of berberine 9-O-pyrazole alkyl derivative loaded in graphene oxide nanosheets for chemo-photothermal synergetic cancer therapy

Aptamer-mediated therapeutic strategies provide a potential approach for cancer

The treatment of tumors still faces considerable challenges. While conventional treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy provide some curative effects, their side effects and limitations highlight the importance of finding more precise treatment strategies. Aptamers have become an important target molecule in the field of drug delivery systems due to their good affinity and targeting, and they have gradually become an important link from basic research to clinical application. In this paper, we discussed the latest progress of aptamer-mediated nanodrugs, as well as aptamer-mediated photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and immunotherapy strategies for tumor treatment, and explored the possibility of aptamer-mediated therapy for accurate tumor treatment. The purpose of this review is to provide novel insights for treating tumors with aptamer-mediated therapies by summarizing these innovative strategies, thereby ultimately enhancing the therapeutic efficacy for cancer patients.

Graphene-based hybrid composites for cancer diagnostic and therapy

The application of graphene-based nanocomposites for therapeutic and diagnostic reasons has advanced considerably in recent years due to advancements in the synthesis and design of graphene-based nanocomposites, giving rise to a new field of nano-cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nano-graphene is being utilized more often in the field of cancer therapy, where it is employed in conjunction with diagnostics and treatment to address the complex clinical obstacles and problems associated with this life-threatening illness. When compared to other nanomaterials, graphene derivatives stand out due to their remarkable structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. The high specific surface area of these materials makes them useful as carriers in controlled release systems that respond to external stimuli; these compounds include drugs and biomolecules like nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Furthermore, the presence of distinctive sheet-like nanostructures and the capacity for photothermal conversion have rendered graphene-based nanocomposites highly favorable for optical therapeutic applications, including photothermal treatment (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and theranostics. This review highlights the current state and benefits of using graphene-based nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and therapy and discusses the obstacles and prospects of their future development. Then we focus on graphene-based nanocomposites applications in cancer treatment, including smart drug delivery systems, PTT, and PDT. Lastly, the biocompatibility of graphene-based nanocomposites is also discussed to provide a unique overview of the topic.

FeS2-modified MXene nanocomposite platform for efficient PTT/CDT/TDT integration through enhanced GSH consumption

Hypoxic microenvironment and glutathione (GSH) accumulation in tumours limit the efficacy of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) anti-tumour therapy. To address this challenge, we increased the consumption of GSH and the production of ROS through a novel nanoplatform with the action of inorganic nanoenzymes. In this study, we prepared mesoporous FeS2 using a simple template method, efficiently loaded AIPH, and assembled Ti3C2/FeS2-AIPH@BSA (TFAB) nanocomposites through self-assembly with BSA and 2D Ti3C2. The constructed TFAB nanotherapeutic platform enhanced chemodynamic therapy (CDT) by generating toxic hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) via FeS2, while consuming GSH to reduce the loss of generated ˙OH via glutathione oxidase-like (GSH-OXD). In addition, TFAB is able to stimulate the decomposition of AIPH under 808 nm laser irradiation to produce oxygen-independent biotoxic alkyl radicals (˙R) for thermodynamic therapy (TDT). In conclusion, TFAB represents an innovative nanoplatform that effectively addresses the limitations of free radical-based treatment strategies. Through the synergistic therapeutic strategy of photothermal therapy (PTT), CDT, and TDT within the tumor microenvironment, TFAB nanoplatforms achieve controlled AIPH release, ROS generation, intracellular GSH consumption, and precise temperature elevation, resulting in enhanced intracellular oxidative stress, significant apoptotic cell death, and notable tumor growth inhibition. This comprehensive treatment strategy shows great promise in the field of tumor therapy.

Neurodiagnostic and neurotherapeutic potential of graphene nanomaterials

Graphene has emerged as a highly promising nanomaterial for a variety of advanced technologies, including batteries, energy, electronics, and biotechnologies. Its recent contribution to neurotechnology is particularly noteworthy because its superior conductivity, chemical resilience, biocompatibility, thermal stability, and scalable nature make it well-suited for measuring brain activity and plasticity in health and disease. Graphene-mediated compounds are microfabricated in two central methods: chemical processes with natural graphite and chemical vapor deposition of graphene in a film form. They are widely used as biosensors and bioelectronics for neurodiagnostic and neurotherapeutic purposes in several brain disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, stroke, glioma, epilepsy, tinnitus, and Alzheimer's disease. This review provides an overview of studies that have demonstrated the technical advances of graphene nanomaterials in neuroscientific and clinical applications. We also discuss current limitations and future demands in relation to the clinical application of graphene, highlighting its potential technological and clinical significance for treating brain disorders. Our review underscores the potential of graphene nanomaterials as powerful tools for advancing the understanding of the brain and developing new therapeutic strategies.

Graphene Oxide Nanostructures as Nanoplatforms for Delivering Natural Therapeutic Agents: Applications in Cancer Treatment, Bacterial Infections, and Bone Regeneration Medicine

Graphene, fullerenes, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots are just a few of the carbon-based nanomaterials that have gained enormous popularity in a variety of scientific disciplines and industrial uses. As a two-dimensional material in the creation of therapeutic delivery systems for many illnesses, nanosized graphene oxide (NGO) is now garnering a large amount of attention among these materials. In addition to other benefits, NGO functions as a drug nanocarrier with remarkable biocompatibility, high pharmaceutical loading capacity, controlled drug release capability, biological imaging efficiency, multifunctional nanoplatform properties, and the power to increase the therapeutic efficacy of loaded agents. Thus, NGO is a perfect nanoplatform for the development of drug delivery systems (DDSs) to both detect and treat a variety of ailments. This review article's main focus is on investigating surface functionality, drug-loading methods, and drug release patterns designed particularly for smart delivery systems. The paper also examines the relevance of using NGOs to build DDSs and considers prospective uses in the treatment of diseases including cancer, infection by bacteria, and bone regeneration medicine. These factors cover the use of naturally occurring medicinal substances produced from plant-based sources.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapy in Cancer Treatment

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNMs), specifically graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have shown great potential in cancer therapy owing to their physicochemical properties. As GO and rGO strongly absorb light in the near-infrared (NIR) region, they are useful in photothermal therapy (PTT) for cancer treatment. However, despite the structural similarities of GO and rGO, they exhibit different influences on anticancer treatment due to their different photothermal capacities. In this review, various characterization techniques used to compare the structural features of GO and rGO are first outlined. Then, a comprehensive summary and discussion of the applicability of GBNMs in the context of PTT for diverse cancer types are presented. This discussion includes the integration of PTT with secondary therapeutic strategies, with a particular focus on the photothermal capacity achieved through near-infrared irradiation parameters and the modifications implemented. Furthermore, a dedicated section is devoted to studies on hybrid magnetic-GBNMs. Finally, the challenges and prospects associated with the utilization of GBNM in PTT, with a primary emphasis on the potential for clinical translation, are addressed.

Stimuli responsive nanosonosensitizers for sonodynamic therapy

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) has gained significant attention in the treatment of deep tumors and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections due to its high tissue penetration depth, high spatiotemporal selectivity, and noninvasive therapeutic method. SDT combines low-intensity ultrasound (US) and sonosensitizers to produce lethal reactive oxygen species (ROS) and external damage, which is the main mechanism behind this therapy. However, traditional organic small-molecule sonosensitizers display poor water solubility, strong phototoxicity, and insufficient targeting ability. Inorganic sonosensitizers, on the other hand, have low ROS yield and poor biocompatibility. These drawbacks have hindered SDT's clinical transformation and application. Hence, designing stimuli-responsive nano-sonosensitizers that make use of the lesion's local microenvironment characteristics and US stimulation is an excellent alternative for achieving efficient, specific, and safe treatment. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the currently accepted mechanisms in SDT and discuss the application of responsive nano-sonosensitizers in the treatment of tumor and bacterial infections. Additionally, we emphasize the significance of the principle and process of response, based on the classification of response patterns. Finally, this review emphasizes the potential limitations and future perspectives of SDT that need to be addressed to promote its clinical transformation.

Delivery of Doxorubicin by Ferric Ion-Modified Mesoporous Polydopamine Nanoparticles and Anticancer Activity against HCT-116 Cells In Vitro

In clinical cancer research, photothermal therapy is one of the most effective ways to increase sensitivity to chemotherapy. Here, we present a simple and effective method for developing a nanotherapeutic agent for chemotherapy combined with photothermal therapy. The nanotherapeutic agent mesoporous polydopamine-Fe(III)-doxorubicin-hyaluronic acid (MPDA-Fe(III)-DOX-HA) was composed of mesoporous polydopamine modified by ferric ions and loaded with the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX), as well as an outer layer coating of hyaluronic acid. The pore size of the mesoporous polydopamine was larger than that of the common polydopamine nanoparticles, and the particle size of MPDA-Fe(III)-DOX-HA nanoparticles was 179 ± 19 nm. With the presence of ferric ions, the heat generation effect of the MPDA-Fe(III)-DOX-HA nanoparticles in the near-infrared light at 808 nm was enhanced. In addition, the experimental findings revealed that the active targeting of hyaluronic acid to tumor cells mitigated the toxicity of DOX on normal cells. Furthermore, under 808 nm illumination, the MPDA-Fe(III)-DOX-HA nanoparticles demonstrated potent cytotoxicity to HCT-116 cells, indicating a good anti-tumor effect in vitro. Therefore, the system developed in this work merits further investigation as a potential nanotherapeutic platform for photothermal treatment of cancer.

Dual-Cascade Activatable Nanopotentiators Reshaping Adenosine Metabolism for Sono-Chemodynamic-Immunotherapy of Deep Tumors

Immunotherapy is an attractive treatment strategy for cancer, while its efficiency and safety need to be improved. A dual-cascade activatable nanopotentiator for sonodynamic therapy (SDT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT)-cooperated immunotherapy of deep tumors via reshaping adenosine metabolism is herein reported. This nanopotentiator (NP_MCA ) is constructed through crosslinking adenosine deaminase (ADA) with chlorin e6 (Ce6)-conjugated manganese dioxide (MnO₂ ) nanoparticles via a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-cleavable linker. In the tumor microenvironment with ultrasound (US) irradiation, NP_MCA mediates CDT and SDT concurrently in deep tumors covered with 2-cm tissues to produce abundant ROS, which results in dual-cascade scissoring of ROS-cleavable linkers to activate ADA within NC_MCA to block adenosine metabolism. Moreover, immunogenic cell death (ICD) of dying tumor cells and upregulation of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is triggered by the generated ROS and Mn²⁺ from NP_MCA , respectively, leading to activation of antitumor immune response. The potency of immune response is further reinforced by reducing the accumulation of adenosine in tumor microenvironment by the activated ADA. As a result, NP_MCA enables CDT and SDT-cooperated immunotherapy, showing an obviously improved therapeutic efficacy to inhibit the growths of bilateral tumors, in which the primary tumors are covered with 2-cm tissues.

Graphene family in cancer therapy: recent progress in cancer gene/drug delivery applications

In the past few years, the development in the construction and architecture of graphene based nanocomplexes has dramatically accelerated the use of nano-graphene for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes, fostering a new area of nano-cancer therapy. To be specific, nano-graphene is increasingly used in cancer therapy, where diagnosis and treatment are coupled to deal with the clinical difficulties and challenges of this lethal disease. As a distinct family of nanomaterials, graphene derivatives exhibit outstanding structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. Concurrently, they can transport a wide variety of synthetic agents, including medicines and biomolecules, such as nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Herewith, we first provide an overview of the most effective functionalizing agents for graphene derivatives and afterward discuss the significant improvements in the gene and drug delivery composites based on graphene.

Graphene-based nanomaterials for stimuli-sensitive controlled delivery of therapeutic molecules

Stimuli-responsive drug delivery has attracted tremendous attention in the past decades. It provides a spatial- and temporal-controlled release in response to different triggers, thus enabling highly efficient drug delivery and minimizing drug side effects. Graphene-based nanomaterials have been broadly explored, and they show great potential in smart drug delivery due to their stimuli-responsive behavior and high loading capacity for an extended range of drug molecules. These characteristics are a result of high surface area, mechanical stability and chemical stability, and excellent optical, electrical, and thermal properties. Their great and infinite functionalization potential also allows them to be integrated into several types of polymers, macromolecules, or other nanoparticles, leading to the fabrication of novel nanocarriers with enhanced biocompatibility and trigger-sensitive properties. Thus, numerous studies have been dedicated to graphene modification and functionalization. In the current review, we introduce graphene derivatives and different graphene-based nanomaterials utilized in drug delivery and discuss the most important advances in their functionalization and modification. Also, their potential and progress in an intelligent drug release in response to different types of stimuli either endogenous (pH, redox conditions, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)) or exogenous (temperature, near-infrared (NIR) radiation, and electric field) will be debated.

Carbon Graphitization: Towards Greener Alternatives to Develop Nanomaterials for Targeted Drug Delivery

Carbon nanomaterials have attracted great interest for their unique physico-chemical properties for various applications, including medicine and, in particular, drug delivery, to solve the most challenging unmet clinical needs. Graphitization is a process that has become very popular for their production or modification. However, traditional conditions are energy-demanding; thus, recent efforts have been devoted to the development of greener routes that require lower temperatures or that use waste or byproducts as a carbon source in order to be more sustainable. In this concise review, we analyze the progress made in the last five years in this area, as well as in their development as drug delivery agents, focusing on active targeting, and conclude with a perspective on the future of the field.

Graphene and graphene oxide with anticancer applications: Challenges and future perspectives

Graphene-based materials have shown immense pertinence for sensing/imaging, gene/drug delivery, cancer therapy/diagnosis, and tissue engineering/regenerative medicine. Indeed, the large surface area, ease of functionalization, high drug loading capacity, and reactive oxygen species induction potentials have rendered graphene- (G-) and graphene oxide (GO)-based (nano)structures promising candidates for cancer therapy applications. Various techniques namely liquid-phase exfoliation, Hummer's method, chemical vapor deposition, chemically reduced GO, mechanical cleavage of graphite, arc discharge of graphite, and thermal fusion have been deployed for the production of G-based materials. Additionally, important criteria such as biocompatibility, bio-toxicity, dispersibility, immunological compatibility, and inflammatory reactions of G-based structures need to be systematically assessed for additional clinical and biomedical appliances. Furthermore, surface properties (e.g., lateral dimension, charge, corona influence, surface structure, and oxygen content), concentration, detection strategies, and cell types are vital for anticancer activities of these structures. Notably, the efficient accumulation of anticancer drugs in tumor targets/tissues, controlled cellular uptake properties, tumor-targeted drug release behavior, and selective toxicity toward the cells are crucial criteria that need to be met for developing future anticancer G-based nanosystems. Herein, important challenges and future perspectives of cancer therapy using G- and GO-based nanosystems have been highlighted, and the recent advancements are deliberated.

Doxorubicin-loaded graphene oxide nanocomposites in cancer medicine: Stimuli-responsive carriers, co-delivery and suppressing resistance

INTRODUCTION

The application of doxorubicin (DOX) in cancer therapy has been limited due to its drug resistance and poor internalization. Graphene oxide (GO) nanostructures have the capacity for DOX delivery while promoting its cytotoxicity in cancer.

AREAS COVERED

The favorable characteristics of GO nanocomposites, preparation method, and application in cancer therapy are described. Then, DOX resistance in cancer is discussed. The GO-mediated photothermal therapy and DOX delivery for cancer suppression are described. Preparation of stimuli-responsive GO nanocomposites, surface functionalization, hybrid nanoparticles, and theranostic applications are emphasized in DOX chemotherapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Graphene oxide nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy maximizes the anti-cancer activity of DOX against cancer cells. Apart from DOX delivery, GO nanomaterials are capable of loading anti-cancer agents and genetic tools to minimize drug resistance and enhance the cytolytic impact of DOX in cancer eradication. To enhance DOX accumulation in cancer cells, stimuli-responsive (redox-, light-, enzyme- and pH-sensitive) GO nanoparticles have been developed for DOX delivery. Further development of targeted delivery of DOX-loaded GO nanomaterials against cancer cells may be achieved by surface modification of polymers such as polyethylene glycol, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan. Doxorubicin-loaded GO nanoparticles have demonstrated theranostic potential for simultaneous diagnosis and therapy. Hybridization of GO with other nanocarriers such as silica and gold nanoparticles further broadens their potential anti-cancer therapy applications.

Photolytic Removal of Red Blood Cell Membranes Camouflaged on Nanoparticles for Enhanced Cellular Uptake and Combined Chemo-Photodynamic Inhibition of Cancer Cells

Biomimetic therapeutics offer great potential for drug delivery that avoids immune recognition. However, the coated cell membrane usually hinders the cellular uptake of nanoparticles; thus, structure-changeable formulations have attracted increasing attention. Herein, we report photolytic pyropheophorbide a (PA)-inserted red blood cell (RBC) membrane-camouflaged curcumin dimeric prodrug (CUR₂-TK)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles [(CUR₂-TK)-PLGA@RBC-PA] for enhanced cancer therapy. In these nanoparticles, the inner core was constructed using PLGA and loaded with our synthesized reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive cleavable curcumin dimeric prodrug (CUR₂-TK). The nanoparticles generated ROS in response to the light irradiation attributed to the incorporated PA. The ROS further triggered the lysis of the cell membrane and exposed the nanoparticles for enhanced tumor cellular uptake, and the ROS also cleaved CUR₂-TK for controlled CUR drug release. Moreover, the ROS performed photodynamic therapy (PDT). The chemotherapy and PDT produced a combined effect in the treatment of cancer cells, thus enhancing anticancer therapeutic efficacy.

Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems for the Diagnosis and Therapy of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Numerous drugs have been developed to treat lung cancer patients in recent years, whereas most of these drugs have undesirable adverse effects due to nonspecific distribution in the body. To address this problem, stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems are imparted with unique characteristics and specifically deliver loaded drugs at lung cancer tissues on the basis of internal tumor microenvironment or external stimuli. This review summarized recent studies focusing on the smart carriers that could respond to light, ultrasound, pH, or enzyme, and provided a promising strategy for lung cancer therapy.

The Role of Graphene Oxide Nanocarriers in Treating Gliomas

Gliomas are the most common primary malignant tumors of the central nervous system, and their conventional treatment involves maximal safe surgical resection combined with radiotherapy and temozolomide chemotherapy; however, this treatment does not meet the requirements of patients in terms of survival and quality of life. Graphene oxide (GO) has excellent physical and chemical properties and plays an important role in the treatment of gliomas mainly through four applications, viz. direct killing, drug delivery, immunotherapy, and phototherapy. This article reviews research on GO nanocarriers in the treatment of gliomas in recent years and also highlights new ideas for the treatment of these tumors.

Carbon nanomaterials as emerging nanotherapeutic platforms to tackle the rising tide of cancer - A review

Cancer has become one of the main reasons for human death in recent years. Around 18 million new cancer cases and approximately 9.6 million deaths from cancer reported in 2018, and the annual number of cancer cases will have increased to 22 million in the next two decades. These alarming facts have rekindled researchers' attention to develop and apply different approaches for cancer therapy. Unfortunately, most of the applied methods for cancer therapy not only have adverse side effects like toxicity and damage of healthy cells but also have a short lifetime. To this end, introducing innovative and effective methods for cancer therapy is vital and necessary. Among different potential materials, carbon nanomaterials can cope with the rising threats of cancer. Due to unique physicochemical properties of different carbon nanomaterials including carbon, fullerene, carbon dots, graphite, single-walled carbon nanotube and multi-walled carbon nanotubes, they exhibit possibilities to address the drawbacks for cancer therapy. Carbon nanomaterials are prodigious materials due to their ability in drug delivery or remedial of small molecules. Functionalization of carbon nanomaterials can improve the cancer therapy process and decrement the side effects. These exceptional traits make carbon nanomaterials as versatile and prevalent materials for application in cancer therapy. This article spotlights the recent findings in cancer therapy using carbon nanomaterials (2015-till now). Different types of carbon nanomaterials and their utilization in cancer therapy were highlighted. The plausible mechanisms for the action of carbon nanomaterials in cancer therapy were elucidated and the advantages and disadvantages of each material were also illustrated. Finally, the current problems and future challenges for cancer therapy based on carbon nanomaterials were discussed.

Metal Organic Frameworks as Biosensing Materials for COVID-19

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak is the most startling public health crises with attendant global socio-economic burden ever experienced in the twenty-first century. The level of devastation by this outbreak is such that highly impacted countries will take years to recover. Studies have shown that timely detection based on accelerated sample testing and accurate diagnosis are crucial steps to reducing or preventing the spread of any pandemic outbreak. In this opinionated review, the impacts of metal organic frameworks (MOFs) as a biosensor in a pandemic outbreak is investigated with reference to COVID-19. Biosensing technologies have been proven to be very effective in clinical analyses, especially in assessment of severe infectious diseases. Polymerase chain reactions (PCR, RT-PCR, CRISPR) - based test methods predominantly used for SARS-COV-2 diagnoses have serious limitations and the health scientists and researchers are urged to come up with a more robust and versatile system for solving diagnostic problem associated with the current and future pandemic outbreaks. MOFs, an emerging crystalline material with unique characteristics will serve as promising biosensing materials in a pandemic outbreak such as the one we are in. We hereby highlight the characteristics of MOFs and their sensing applications, potentials as biosensors in a pandemic outbreak and draw the attention of researchers to a new vista of research that needs immediate action.

Deoxyribonucleic acid anchored on cell membranes for biomedical application

Engineering cellular membranes with functional molecules provides an attractive strategy to manipulate cellular behaviors and functionalities. Currently, synthetic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has emerged as a promising molecular tool to engineer cellular membranes for biomedical applications due to its molecular recognition and programmable properties. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in anchoring DNA on the cellular membranes and their applications. The strategies for anchoring DNA on cell membranes were summarized. Then their applications, such as immune response activation, receptor oligomerization regulation, membrane structure mimicking, cell-surface biosensing, and construction of cell clusters, were listed. The DNA-enabled intelligent systems which were able to sense stimuli such as DNA strands, light, and metal ions were highlighted. Finally, insights regarding the remaining challenges and possible future directions were provided.

The facile preparation of solid-state fluorescent carbon dots with a high fluorescence quantum yield and their application in rapid latent fingerprint detection

Because of direct π-π interactions and excessive energy resonance transfer, it is very challenging to prepare carbon dots (CDs) with a high fluorescence quantum yield (QY) in the solid state. In this study, novel CDs which gave solid-state fluorescence (SSF) with high brightness were successfully prepared via a simple microwave-assisted method. The prepared ScCDs can emit strong blue fluorescence in the solid state, and the absolute QY of this ScCDs powder reaches 51.7%. Such a high QY means that the ScCDs powder could be successfully applied in rapid latent fingerprint (LFP) detection. The LFP detection performance of this ScCDs powder was studied in detail, and the results show that the LFPs developed using the ScCDs powder can be visualized with high definition and contrast under different conditions. This research not only developed a new type of SSF-emitting CDs, but it also proved that the developed CDs have great potential for applications in LFP detection, and this research may also provide inspiration and ideas for the design of new SSF-emitting CDs.

Berberine: A Promising Natural Isoquinoline Alkaloid for the Development of Hypolipidemic Drugs

Berberine, as a representative isoquinoline alkaloid, exhibits significant hypolipidemic activity in both animal models and clinical trials. Recently, a large number of studies on the lipid-lowering mechanism of berberine and studies for improving its hypolipidemic activity have been reported, but for the most part, they have been either incomplete or not comprehensive. In addition, there have been a few specific reviews on the lipid-reducing effect of berberine. In this paper, the physicochemical properties, the lipid-lowering mechanism, and studies of the modification of berberine all are discussed to promote the development of berberine as a lipid-lowering agent. Subsequently, this paper provides some insights into the deficiencies of berberine in the study of lipid-lowering drug, and based on the situation, some proposals are put forward.

Functionalized graphene oxide as a vehicle for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging applications

Graphene oxide (GO) has attracted tremendous attention as a most promising nanomaterial among the carbon family since it emerged as a polynomial functional tool with rational applications in diverse fields such as biomedical engineering, electrocatalysis, biosensing, energy conversion, and storage devices. Despite having certain limitations due to its irreversible aggregation performance owing largely to the strong van der Waals interactions, efforts have been made to smartly engineer its surface chemistry for realistic multimodal applications. The use of such GO-based engineered devices has increased rapidly in the last few years, principally due to its excellent properties, such as huge surface area, honeycomb-like structure allowing vacant interstitial space to accommodate compounds, sp2 hybridized carbon, improved biocompatibility and cell surface penetration due to electronic interactions. Amongst multifaceted GO dynamics, in this review, attempts are made to discuss the advanced applications of GO or graphene-based materials (GBNs) in the biomedical field involving drug or therapeutic gene delivery, dual drug or drug-gene combination targeting, special delivery of drug cocktails to the brain, stimuli-responsive release of molecular payloads, and Janus-structured smart applications for polar-nonpolar combination drug loading followed by targeting together with smart bioimaging approaches. In addition, the advantages of duel-drug delivery systems are discussed in detail. We also discuss various electronic mechanisms, and detailed surface engineering to meet microcosmic criteria for its utilization, various novel implementations of engineered GO as mentioned above, together with discussions of its inevitable toxicity or disadvantages. We hope that the target audience, belonging to biomedical engineering, pharmaceutical or material science fields, may acquire relevant information from this review which may help them design future studies in this field.

Combined cancer therapeutics-Tackling the complexity of the tumor microenvironment

Cancer treatment has yet to find a "silver bullet" capable of selectively and effectively kill tumor cells without damaging healthy cells. Nanomedicine is a promising field that can combine several moieties in one system to produce a multifaceted nanoplatform. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is considered responsible for the ineffectiveness of cancer therapeutics and the difficulty in the translation from the bench to bed side of novel nanomedicines. A promising approach is the use of combinatorial therapies targeting the TME with the use of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials which would increase tumor targeting. Contemporary combined strategies for TME-targeting nanoformulations are based on the application of external stimuli therapies, such as photothermy, hyperthermia or ultrasounds, in combination with stimuli-responsive nanoparticles containing a core, usually composed by metal oxides or graphene, and a biocompatible stimuli-responsive coating layer that could also contain tumor targeting moieties and a chemotherapeutic agent to enhance the therapeutic efficacy. The obstacles that nanotherapeutics must overcome in the TME to accomplish an effective therapeutic cargo delivery and the proposed strategies for improved nanotherapeutics will be reviewed. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Metal-organic frameworks for virus detection

Virus severely endangers human life and health, and the detection of viruses is essential for the prevention and treatment of associated diseases. Metal-organic framework (MOF), a novel hybrid porous material which is bridged by the metal clusters and organic linkers, has become a promising biosensor platform for virus detection due to its outstanding properties including high surface area, adjustable pore size, easy modification, etc. However, the MOF-based sensing platforms for virus detection are rarely summarized. This review systematically divided the detection platforms into nucleic acid and immunological (antigen and antibody) detection, and the underlying sensing mechanisms were interpreted. The nucleic acid sensing was discussed based on the properties of MOF (such as metal ion, functional group, geometry structure, size, porosity, stability, etc.), revealing the relationship between the sensing performance and properties of MOF. Moreover, antibodies sensing based on the fluorescence detection and antigens sensing based on molecular imprinting or electrochemical immunoassay were highlighted. Furthermore, the remaining challenges and future development of MOF for virus detection were further discussed and proposed. This review will provide valuable references for the construction of sophisticated sensing platform for the detection of viruses, especially the 2019 coronavirus.

Aptamer-Functionalized Nanoparticles in Targeted Delivery and Cancer Therapy

Using nanoparticles to carry and delivery anticancer drugs holds much promise in cancer therapy, but nanoparticles per se are lacking specificity. Active targeting, that is, using specific ligands to functionalize nanoparticles, is attracting much attention in recent years. Aptamers, with their several favorable features like high specificity and affinity, small size, very low immunogenicity, relatively low cost for production, and easiness to store, are one of the best candidates for the specific ligands of nanoparticle functionalization. This review discusses the benefits and challenges of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for active targeting and especially presents nearly all of the published works that address the topic of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Biological Activity of Berberine-A Summary Update

Berberine is a plant metabolite belonging to the group of isoquinoline alkaloids with strong biological and pharmacological activity. Currently, berberine is receiving considerable interest due to its anticancer activity based on many biochemical pathways, especially its proapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, the growing number of papers on berberine demands summarizing the knowledge and research trends. The efficacy of berberine in breast and colon cancers seems to be the most promising aspect. Many papers focus on novel therapeutic strategies based on new formulations or search for new active derivatives. The activity of berberine is very important as regards sensitization and support of anticancer therapy in combination with well-known but in some cases inefficient therapeutics. Currently, the compound is being assessed in many important clinical trials and is one of the most promising and intensively examined natural agents.

Aptamer-functionalized molybdenum disulfide nanosheets for tumor cell targeting and lysosomal acidic environment/NIR laser responsive drug delivery to realize synergetic chemo-photothermal therapeutic effects

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), one representative 2D nanomaterial, has recently emerged as a unique platform in the biomedical field. However, its application in drug delivery systems should be further exploited. Here, we report a novel tumor cell targeting and lysosomal acidic environment/NIR laser dual responsive drug delivery system for synergetic chemo-photothermal treatment of cancer cells. The MoS₂ nanosheets were loaded with chemotherapy drug doxorubicin (DOX) and coated with polydopamine (PDA) layer. Then, thiolated aptamer AS1411 and polyethylene glycol (PEG) were modified onto MoS₂ nanosheets through Michael addition reaction to construct DOX@Apt-PEG-PDA-MoS₂ nanosheets. The aptamer modification endowed the nanoplatform with targeting ability to breast cancer MCF-7 cells. MoS₂ and PDA converted 808 nm NIR laser into heat and played the role of photothermal therapy (PTT). Tumor lysosomal acidic environment and NIR laser irradiation accelerated the release of DOX from the nanosheets. The nanocarrier Apt-PEG-PDA-MoS₂ showed good biocompatibility, and DOX@Apt-PEG-PDA-MoS₂ showed synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy effects with significantly enhanced anti-tumor efficacy, suggesting that this MoS₂-based drug delivery platform is promising for targeted and synergetic treatment of cancer.

Aptamer-Pyropheophorbide a Conjugates with Tumor Spheroid Targeting and Penetration Abilities for Photodynamic Therapy

Pyropheophorbide a (Pyro) is a widely used photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, poor water solubility, aggregation-induced fluorescence quenching, and lack of selectivity to targeted cells seriously limit its application. In this work, we prepared aptamer-Pyro conjugates (APCs) by linking Pyro to hydrophilic nucleic acid aptamer to enhance its water solubility and endow it with protein tyrosine kinase 7 (PTK7) overexpressed tumor spheroid specific targeting and penetration abilities for photodynamic therapy. The molecular conjugate was successfully synthesized and dissolved well in an aqueous solution. The APCs showed strong near-infrared fluorescence in the aqueous solution and produced singlet oxygen both in the solution and cells under laser irradiation, indicating its generation of singlet oxygen during PDT was guaranteed. Owing to the cancer cell targeting ability of the aptamer, the APCs specifically bound with PTK7 overexpressed cancerous cells and showed fluorescence signal for tumor cell imaging and diagnosis. The APCs exhibited favorable enhanced phototoxicity to target tumor cells compared with control cells. More importantly, due to the small size of the molecular conjugate, the APCs efficiently penetrated into the interior of multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) and caused cell damage. All these results indicated that the robust aptamer-Pyro conjugate is a promising selective tumor-targeting and penetrable molecule for cancer photodynamic therapy.