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van der Zon AAM, Verduin J, van den Hurk RS, Gargano AFG, Pirok BWJ. Sample transformation in online separations: how chemical conversion advances analytical technology. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 60:36-50. [PMID: 38053451 PMCID: PMC10729587 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc03599a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
While the advent of modern analytical technology has allowed scientists to determine the complexity of mixtures, it also spurred the demand to understand these sophisticated mixtures better. Chemical transformation can be used to provide insights into properties of complex samples such as degradation pathways or molecular heterogeneity that are otherwise unaccessible. In this article, we explore how sample transformation is exploited across different application fields to empower analytical methods. Transformation mechanisms include molecular-weight reduction, controlled degradation, and derivatization. Both offline and online transformation methods have been explored. The covered studies show that sample transformation facilitates faster reactions (e.g. several hours to minutes), reduces sample complexity, unlocks new sample dimensions (e.g. functional groups), provides correlations between multiple sample dimensions, and improves detectability. The article highlights the state-of-the-art and future prospects, focusing in particular on the characterization of protein and nucleic-acid therapeutics, nanoparticles, synthetic polymers, and small molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika A M van der Zon
- University of Amsterdam, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre of Analytical Sciences Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joshka Verduin
- Centre of Analytical Sciences Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rick S van den Hurk
- University of Amsterdam, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre of Analytical Sciences Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andrea F G Gargano
- University of Amsterdam, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre of Analytical Sciences Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bob W J Pirok
- University of Amsterdam, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre of Analytical Sciences Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Thissen J, Klassen MD, Constantinidis P, Hacker MC, Breitkreutz J, Teutenberg T, Fischer B. Online Coupling of Size Exclusion Chromatography to Capillary Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Proteins and Biopharmaceutical Drug Products. Anal Chem 2023; 95:17868-17877. [PMID: 38050672 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
The online coupling of size exclusion chromatography (SEC) to capillary enhanced Raman spectroscopy (CERS) based on a liquid core waveguide (LCW) flow cell was applied for the first time to assess the higher-order structure of different proteins. This setup allows recording of Raman spectra of the monomeric protein within complex mixtures, since SEC enables the separation of the monomeric protein from matrix components such as excipients of a biopharmaceutical product and higher molecular weight species (e.g., aggregates). The acquired Raman spectra were used for structural elucidation of well characterized proteins such as bovine serum albumin, hen egg white lysozyme, and β-lactoglobulin and of the monoclonal antibody rituximab in a medicinal product. Additionally, the CERS detection of the disaccharide sucrose, which is used as a stabilizing excipient, was quantified to achieve a limit of detection (LOD) of 120 μg and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 363 μg injected on the column.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Thissen
- Institut für Umwelt & Energie, Technik & Analytik e.V. (IUTA), Bliersheimer Straße 58-60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Martin D Klassen
- Institut für Umwelt & Energie, Technik & Analytik e.V. (IUTA), Bliersheimer Straße 58-60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Constantinidis
- Institut für Umwelt & Energie, Technik & Analytik e.V. (IUTA), Bliersheimer Straße 58-60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Michael C Hacker
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jörg Breitkreutz
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Thorsten Teutenberg
- Institut für Umwelt & Energie, Technik & Analytik e.V. (IUTA), Bliersheimer Straße 58-60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Björn Fischer
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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3
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Lawson T, Gentleman AS, Lage A, Casadevall C, Xiao J, Petit T, Frosz MH, Reisner E, Euser TG. Low-Volume Reaction Monitoring of Carbon Dot Light Absorbers in Optofluidic Microreactors. ACS Catal 2023; 13:9090-9101. [PMID: 37441232 PMCID: PMC10334427 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.3c02212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Optical monitoring and screening of photocatalytic batch reactions using cuvettes ex situ is time-consuming, requires substantial amounts of samples, and does not allow the analysis of species with low extinction coefficients. Hollow-core photonic crystal fibers (HC-PCFs) provide an innovative approach for in situ reaction detection using ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy, with the potential for high-throughput automation using extremely low sample volumes with high sensitivity for monitoring of the analyte. HC-PCFs use interference effects to guide light at the center of a microfluidic channel and use this to enhance detection sensitivity. They open the possibility of comprehensively studying photocatalysts to extract structure-activity relationships, which is unfeasible with similar reaction volume, time, and sensitivity in cuvettes. Here, we demonstrate the use of HC-PCF microreactors for the screening of the electron transfer properties of carbon dots (CDs), a nanometer-sized material that is emerging as a homogeneous light absorber in photocatalysis. The CD-driven photoreduction reaction of viologens (XV2+) to the corresponding radical monocation XV•+ is monitored in situ as a model reaction, using a sample volume of 1 μL per measurement and with a detectability of <1 μM. A range of different reaction conditions have been systematically studied, including different types of CDs (i.e., amorphous, graphitic, and graphitic nitrogen-doped CDs), surface chemistry, viologens, and electron donors. Furthermore, the excitation irradiance was varied to study its effect on the photoreduction rate. The findings are correlated with the electron transfer properties of CDs based on their electronic structure characterized by soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Optofluidic microreactors with real-time optical detection provide unique insight into the reaction dynamics of photocatalytic systems and could form the basis of future automated catalyst screening platforms, where samples are only available on small scales or at a high cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Lawson
- NanoPhotonics
Centre, Cavendish Laboratory, University
of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
- Yusuf
Hamied Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Alexander S. Gentleman
- NanoPhotonics
Centre, Cavendish Laboratory, University
of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
- Yusuf
Hamied Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Ava Lage
- Yusuf
Hamied Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Carla Casadevall
- Yusuf
Hamied Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Jie Xiao
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Berlin für Materialien und Energy GmbH, Albert-Einstein-Straße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tristan Petit
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Berlin für Materialien und Energy GmbH, Albert-Einstein-Straße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael H. Frosz
- Max
Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Staudtstr. 2, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Yusuf
Hamied Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Tijmen G. Euser
- NanoPhotonics
Centre, Cavendish Laboratory, University
of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
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Groeneveld I, Jaspars A, Akca IB, Somsen GW, Ariese F, van Bommel MR. Use of liquid-core waveguides as photochemical reactors and/or for chemical analysis – An overview. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpap.2023.100168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
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Groeneveld I, Ariese F, Somsen GW, van Bommel MR. Gas-permeable liquid-core waveguide coupled to LC-MS for studying the influence of oxygen on photodegradation processes. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2023.114685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
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den Uijl MJ, Bagdonaite I, Schoenmakers PJ, Pirok BWJ, van Bommel MR. Incorporating a liquid-core-waveguide cell in recycling liquid chromatography for detailed studies of photodegradation reactions. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1688:463723. [PMID: 36549144 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In this work, a microfluidic photoreactor was embedded in a recycling liquid-chromatography system. Mixtures were separated on an analytical column and compounds of interest were subsequently introduced into the light-reactor cell. After degradation, the content of the light-reactor cell was reinjected onto the same column to separate the parent compound from its degradation products. A separated degradation product could be re-introduced into the photoreactor and irradiated again. The next generation of degradation products could again be separated on the same analytical column. This recycling procedure proved an excellent tool to elucidate degradation pathways. This was demonstrated using riboflavin, better known as vitamin B2. By degrading it in the first cycle, degradation products were isolated and subjected to a second degradation in the light-reactor cell. This allows pinpointing secondary products and connect these with primary degradation products. Compared to previous work, this configuration is simpler, cheaper, and more user-friendly, while offering the unique possibility to easily connect degradation products to the initial compounds in a mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimi J den Uijl
- University of Amsterdam, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), The Netherlands.
| | - Ingrida Bagdonaite
- University of Amsterdam, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Schoenmakers
- University of Amsterdam, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), The Netherlands
| | - Bob W J Pirok
- University of Amsterdam, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), The Netherlands
| | - Maarten R van Bommel
- University of Amsterdam, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), The Netherlands; University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam School for Heritage, Memory and Material Culture, Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, P.O. Box 94552, 1090 GN, Amsterdam
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den Uijl MJ, van der Wijst YJHL, Groeneveld I, Schoenmakers PJ, Pirok BWJ, van Bommel MR. Combining Photodegradation in a Liquid-Core-Waveguide Cell with Multiple-Heart-Cut Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography. Anal Chem 2022; 94:11055-11061. [PMID: 35905498 PMCID: PMC9366730 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Photodegradation greatly affects everyday life. It poses
challenges
when food deteriorates or when objects of cultural heritage fade,
but it can also create opportunities applied in advanced oxidation
processes in water purification. Studying photodegradation, however,
can be difficult because of the time needed for degradation, the inaccessibility
of pure compounds, and the need to handle samples manually. A novel
light-exposure cell, based on liquid-core-waveguide (LCW) technology,
was embedded in a multiple-heart-cut two-dimensional liquid chromatography
system by coupling the LCW cell to the multiple-heart-cut valve. The
sample was flushed from the heart-cut loops into the cell by an isocratic
pump. Samples were then irradiated using different time intervals
and subsequently transferred by the same isocratic pump to a second-dimension
sample loop. The mixture containing the transformation products was
then subjected to the second-dimension separation. In the current
setup, about 30–40% of the selected fraction was transferred.
Multiple degradation products could be monitored. Degradation was
found to be faster when a smaller sample amount was introduced (0.3
μg as compared to 1.5 μg). The system was tested with
three applications, that is, fuchsin, a 19th-century synthetic organic
colorant, annatto, a lipophilic food dye, and vitamin B complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimi J den Uijl
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yorn J H L van der Wijst
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iris Groeneveld
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Schoenmakers
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bob W J Pirok
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten R van Bommel
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Analytical-Chemistry Group, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam School for Heritage, Memory and Material Culture, Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94552, 1090 GN, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Groeneveld I, Bagdonaite I, Beekwilder E, Ariese F, Somsen GW, van Bommel MR. Liquid Core Waveguide Cell with In Situ Absorbance Spectroscopy and Coupled to Liquid Chromatography for Studying Light-Induced Degradation. Anal Chem 2022; 94:7647-7654. [PMID: 35587271 PMCID: PMC9161219 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c00886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
In many areas, studying
photostability or the mechanism of photodegradation
is of high importance. Conventional methods to do so can be rather
time-consuming, laborious, and prone to experimental errors. In this
paper we evaluate an integrated and fully automated system for the
study of light-induced degradation, comprising a liquid handler, an
irradiation source and exposure cell with dedicated optics and spectrograph,
and a liquid chromatography (LC) system. A liquid core waveguide (LCW)
was used as an exposure cell, allowing efficient illumination of the
sample over a 12 cm path length. This cell was coupled to a spectrograph,
allowing in situ absorbance monitoring of the exposed sample during
irradiation. The LCW is gas-permeable, permitting diffusion of air
into the cell during light exposure. This unit was coupled online
to LC with diode array detection for immediate and automated analysis
of the composition of the light-exposed samples. The analytical performance
of the new system was established by assessing linearity, limit of
detection, and repeatability of the in-cell detection, sample recovery
and carryover, and overall repeatability of light-induced degradation
monitoring, using riboflavin as the test compound. The applicability
of the system was demonstrated by recording a photodegradation time
profile of riboflavin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Groeneveld
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ingrida Bagdonaite
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin Beekwilder
- Da Vinci Laboratory Solutions, Sydneystraat 5, 3047 BP Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Freek Ariese
- LaserLaB, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Govert W Somsen
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten R van Bommel
- Analytical Chemistry Group, van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, Amsterdam School for Heritage, Memory and Material Culture, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94552, 1091 GN Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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