In situ customized apolipoprotein B48-enriched protein corona enhances oral gene delivery of chitosan-based nanoparticles

The formation of protein corona (PC) is important for promoting the in vivo delivery of nanoparticles (NPs). However, PC formed in the physiological environment of oral delivery is poorly understood. Here, we engineered seven types of trimethyl chitosan-cysteine (TC) NPs, with distinct molecular weights, quaternization degrees, and thiolation degrees, to deeply investigate the influence of various PC formed in the physiological environment of oral delivery on in vivo gene delivery of polymeric NPs, further constructing the relationship between the surface characteristics of NPs and the efficacy of oral gene delivery. Our findings reveal that TC7 NPs, with high molecular weight, moderate quaternization, and high sulfhydryl content, modulate PC formation in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing particle size and promoting oral delivery of gene loaded TC7 NPs. Orally delivered TC7 NPs target macrophages by in situ adsorption of apolipoprotein (Apo) B48 in intestinal tissue, leading to the improved in vivo antihepatoma efficacy via the natural tumor homing ability of macrophages. Our results suggest that efficient oral delivery of genes can be achieved through an in situ customized ApoB48-enriched PC, offering a promising modality in treating macrophage-related diseases.

Recent progress in biomimetic nanomedicines based on versatile targeting strategy for atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis (AS) is considered to be one of the major causes of cardiovascular disease. Its pathological microenvironment is characterised by increased production of reactive oxygen species, lipid oxides, and excessive inflammatory factors, which accumulate at the monolayer endothelial cells in the vascular wall to form AS plaques. Therefore, intervention in the pathological microenvironment would be beneficial in delaying AS. Researchers have designed biomimetic nanomedicines with excellent biocompatibility and the ability to avoid being cleared by the immune system through different therapeutic strategies to achieve better therapeutic effects for the characteristics of AS. Biomimetic nanomedicines can further enhance delivery efficiency and improve treatment efficacy due to their good biocompatibility and ability to evade clearance by the immune system. Biomimetic nanomedicines based on therapeutic strategies such as neutralising inflammatory factors, ROS scavengers, lipid clearance and integration of diagnosis and treatment are versatile approaches for effective treatment of AS. The review firstly summarises the targeting therapeutic strategy of biomimetic nanomedicine for AS in recent 5 years. Biomimetic nanomedicines using cell membranes, proteins, and extracellular vesicles as carriers have been developed for AS.

Macrophage-Biomimetic Nanoplatform-Based Therapy for Inflammation-Associated Diseases

Inflammation-associated diseases are very common clinically with a high incidence; however, there is still a lack of effective treatments. Cell-biomimetic nanoplatforms have led to many breakthroughs in the field of biomedicine, significantly improving the efficiency of drug delivery and its therapeutic implications especially for inflammation-associated diseases. Macrophages are an important component of immune cells and play a critical role in the occurrence and progression of inflammation-associated diseases while simultaneously maintaining homeostasis and modulating immune responses. Therefore, macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms not only inherit the functions of macrophages including the inflammation tropism effect for targeted delivery of drugs and the neutralization effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxins via membrane surface receptors or proteins, but also maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles. Macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are shown to have remarkable therapeutic efficacy and excellent application potential in inflammation-associated diseases. In this review, inflammation-associated diseases, the physiological functions of macrophages, and the classification and construction of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are first introduced. Next, the latest applications of different macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms for the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases are summarized. Finally, challenges and opportunities for future biomedical applications are discussed. It is hoped that the review will provide new ideas for the further development of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms.

Engineering Efferocytosis-Mimicking Nanovesicles to Regulate Joint Anti-Inflammation and Peripheral Immunosuppression for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation of the synovial joints and the dysfunction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the peripheral blood. Therefore, an optimal treatment strategy should aim to eliminate the inflammatory response in the joints and simultaneously restore the immune tolerance of Tregs in peripheral blood. Accordingly, we developed an efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicle that contains three functional factors for immunomodulating of efferocytosis, including "find me" and "eat me" signals for professional (macrophage) or non-professional phagocytes (T lymphocyte), and "apoptotic metabolite" for metabolite digestion. We showed that efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles targeted the inflamed joints and spleen of mice with collagen-induced arthritis, further recruiting and selectively binding to macrophages and T lymphocytes to induce M2 macrophage polarization and Treg differentiation and T helper cell 17 (Th17) recession. Under systemic administration, the efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles effectively maintained the pro-inflammatory M1/anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage balance in joints and the Treg/Th17 imbalance in peripheral blood to prevent RA progression. This study demonstrates the potential of efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles for RA immunotherapy.

Bio-inspired drug delivery systems: A new attempt from bioinspiration to biomedical applications

Natural organisms have evolved sophisticated and multiscale hierarchical structures over time to enable survival. Currently, bionic design is revolutionizing drug delivery systems (DDS), drawing inspiration from the structure and properties of natural organisms that offer new possibilities to overcome the challenges of traditional drug delivery systems. Bionic drug delivery has contributed to a significant improvement in therapeutic outcomes, providing personalized regimens for patients with various diseases and enhancing both their quality of life and drug efficacy. Therefore, it is important to summarize the progress made so far and to discuss the challenges and opportunities for future development. Herein, we review the recent advances in bio-inspired materials, bio-inspired drug vehicles, and drug-loading platforms of biomimetic structures and properties, emphasizing the importance of adapting the structure and function of organisms to meet the needs of drug delivery systems. Finally, we highlight the delivery strategies of bionics in DDS to provide new perspectives and insights into the research and exploration of bionics in DDS. Hopefully, this review will provide future insights into utilizing biologically active vehicles, bio-structures, and bio-functions, leading to better clinical outcomes.

In-situ growth of CeO2 on biofilms: Innovative nanoparticles for photothermal therapy & multi-pronged attack on Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is complex and multifactorial, and its pathogenesis involves multiple factors and processes. This study pioneered the in situ growth of cerium oxide nanoparticles on macrophage membranes (Ce-RAW). Further, carbon quantum dots (CQD) were biomimetically modified by Ce-RAW, leading to the synthesis of a multifunctional nanocomposite (CQD-Ce-RAW). Within the framework of this research, CQD-Ce-RAW was strategically combined with photothermal therapy (PTT), aiming to achieve a more significant therapeutic effect. The macrophage membrane confers the system with anti-phagocytic and anti-inflammatory biological functions. More importantly, the ultra-small size of cerium oxide grown on the membrane acts as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger and alleviates the degree of oxidative stress. Meanwhile, CQD as a photosensitizer helps dissociate amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregates and chelates excess copper ions, thus further inhibiting Aβ aggregation. Cell experiments showed that CQD-Ce-RAW combined with PTT could effectively degrade and inhibit the aggregation of Aβ, remove ROS, and improve cell survival rate. The results of in vivo photothermal experiments demonstrated that near-infrared light enhanced the efficiency of drug penetration through the blood-brain barrier and facilitated its accumulation in brain tissue. This comprehensive therapeutic approach can intervene in the disease progression from multiple pathways, providing a new prospect for treating AD.

Advances in the treatment of atherosclerosis with ligand-modified nanocarriers

Atherosclerosis, a chronic disease associated with metabolism, poses a significant risk to human well-being. Currently, existing treatments for atherosclerosis lack sufficient efficiency, while the utilization of surface-modified nanoparticles holds the potential to deliver highly effective therapeutic outcomes. These nanoparticles can target and bind to specific receptors that are abnormally over-expressed in atherosclerotic conditions. This paper reviews recent research (2018-present) advances in various ligand-modified nanoparticle systems targeting atherosclerosis by specifically targeting signature molecules in the hope of precise treatment at the molecular level and concludes with a discussion of the challenges and prospects in this field. The intention of this review is to inspire novel concepts for the design and advancement of targeted nanomedicines tailored specifically for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Recent advances in cell membrane camouflaged nanotherapeutics for the treatment of bacterial infection

Infectious diseases caused by bacterial infections are common in clinical practice. Cell membrane coating nanotechnology represents a pioneering approach for the delivery of therapeutic agents without being cleared by the immune system in the meantime. And the mechanism of infection treatment should be divided into two parts: suppression of pathogenic bacteria and suppression of excessive immune response. The membrane-coated nanoparticles exert anti-bacterial function by neutralizing exotoxins and endotoxins, and some other bacterial proteins. Inflammation, the second procedure of bacterial infection, can also be suppressed through targeting the inflamed site, neutralization of toxins, and the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. And platelet membrane can affect the complement process to suppress inflammation. Membrane-coated nanoparticles treat bacterial infections through the combined action of membranes and nanoparticles, and diagnose by imaging, forming a theranostic system. Several strategies have been discovered to enhance the anti-bacterial/anti-inflammatory capability, such as synthesizing the material through electroporation, pretreating with the corresponding pathogen, membrane hybridization, or incorporating with genetic modification, lipid insertion, and click chemistry. Here we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding the application of membrane-coated nanoparticles in preventing bacterial infections as well as addressing existing uncertainties and misconceptions.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles: cutting-edge drug delivery systems for osteoporosis therapy

Osteoporosis, characterized by a reduction in bone mineral density, represents a prevalent skeletal disorder with substantial global health implications. Conventional therapeutic strategies, exemplified by bisphosphonates and hormone replacement regimens, though effective, encounter inherent limitations and challenges. Recent years have witnessed the surge of cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) as a promising intervention for osteoporosis, leveraging their distinct attributes including refined biocompatibility, heightened pharmaceutical payload capacity, as well as targeted drug release kinetics. However, a comprehensive review consolidating the application of CMNPs-based therapy for osteoporosis remains absent within the existing literature. In this review, we provide a concise overview of the distinctive pathogenesis associated with osteoporosis, alongside an in-depth exploration of the physicochemical attributes intrinsic to CMNPs derived from varied cellular sources. Subsequently, we explore the potential utility of CMNPs, elucidating emerging trends in their deployment for osteoporosis treatment through multifaceted therapeutic approaches. By linking the notable attributes of CMNPs with their roles in mitigating osteoporosis, this review serves as a catalyst for further advances in the design of advanced CMNPs tailored for osteoporosis management. Ultimately, such progress is promising for enhancing outcomes in anti-bone loss interventions, paving the way for clinical translation in the near future.

Nanozyme-based visual diagnosis and therapeutics for myocardial infarction: The application and strategy

BACKGROUND

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a heart injury caused by ischemia and low oxygen conditions. The occurrence of MI lead to the activation of a large number of neutrophils and macrophages, inducing severe inflammatory injury. Meanwhile, the inflammatory response produces much more free radicals, further exacerbating the inflammatory response and tissue damage. Efforts are being dedicated to developing antioxidants and enzymes, as well as small molecule drugs, for treating myocardial ischemia. However, poor pharmacokinetics and potential side effects limit the clinical application of these drugs. Recent advances in nanotechnology have paved new pathways in biomedical and healthcare environments. Nanozymes exhibit the advantages of biological enzymes and nanomaterials, including with higher catalytic activity and stability than natural enzymes. Thus, nanozymes provide new possibilities for the diagnosis and treatment of oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases.

AIM OF REVIEW

We describe the application of nanozymes in the diagnosis and therapy of MI, aiming to bridge the gap between the diagnostic and therapeutic needs of MI.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

We describe the application of nanozymes in the diagnosis and therapy of MI, and discuss the new strategies for improving the diagnosis and treatment of MI. We review in detail the applications of nanozymes to achieve highly sensitive detection of biomarkers of MI. Due to their unique enzyme catalytic capabilities, nanozymes have the ability to sensitively detect biomolecules through colorimetric, fluorescent, and electrochemical assays. In addition, nanozymes exhibit excellent antioxidase-mimicking activity to treat MI by modulating reduction/oxidation (REDOX) homeostasis. Nanozymes can also passively or actively target MI tissue sites, thereby protecting ischemic myocardial tissue and reducing the infarct area. These innovative applications of nanozymes in the field of biomedicine have shown promising results in the diagnosis and treatment of MI, offering a novel therapeutic strategy.

Bioinspired and biomimetic strategies for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic chronic inflammatory bowel disease with high morbidity and an increased risk of cancer or death, resulting in a heavy societal medical burden. While current treatment modalities have been successful in achieving long-term remission and reducing the risk of complications, IBD remains incurable. Nanomedicine has the potential to address the high toxic side effects and low efficacy in IBD treatment. However, synthesized nanomedicines typically exhibit some degree of immune rejection, off-target effects, and a poor ability to cross biological barriers, limiting the development of clinical applications. The emergence of bionic materials and bionic technologies has reshaped the landscape in novel pharmaceutical fields. Biomimetic drug-delivery systems can effectively improve biocompatibility and reduce immunogenicity. Some bioinspired strategies can mimic specific components, targets or immune mechanisms in pathological processes to produce targeting effects for precise disease control. This article highlights recent research on bioinspired and biomimetic strategies for the treatment of IBD and discusses the challenges and future directions in the field to advance the treatment of IBD.

Biomimetic nanotechnology for cancer immunotherapy: State of the art and future perspective

Cancer continues to be a significant worldwide cause of mortality. This underscores the urgent need for novel strategies to complement and overcome the limitations of conventional therapies, such as imprecise targeting and drug resistance. Cancer Immunotherapy utilizes the body's immune system to target malignant cells, reducing harm to healthy tissue. Nevertheless, the efficacy of immunotherapy exhibits variation across individuals and has the potential to induce autoimmune responses. Biomimetic nanoparticles (bNPs) have transformative potential in cancer immunotherapy, promising improved accurate targeting, immune system activation, and resistance mechanisms, while also reducing the occurrence of systemic autoimmune side effects. This integration offers opportunities for personalized medicine and better therapeutic outcomes. Despite considerable potential, bNPs face barriers like insufficient targeting, restricted biological stability, and interactions within the tumor microenvironment. The resolution of these concerns is crucial in order to expedite the integration of bNPs from the research setting into clinical therapeutic uses. In addition, optimizing manufacturing processes and reducing bNP-related costs are essential for practical implementation. The present research introduces comprehensive classifications of bNPs as well as recent achievements in their application in cancer immunotherapies, emphasizing the need to address barriers for swift clinical integration.

A bibliography of smart nanomaterials biological application in myocardial infarction research

Myocardial infarction has been considered the top cause of mortality globally. Numerous studies investigated the biological application of smart nanomaterials in myocardial infarction. Our study aimed to provide an overview of this area through bibliography research. Literature related to the biological application of nanomaterials was retrieved from the web of science core collection database. Bibliography analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel, VOSviewer, Citespace, and the R package "bibliometrix." A total of 1226 publications were included. The USA, China, and India carried out the most of studies. Harvard University is the most productive institution. Matthias Nahrendorf ranked first in article volume and also owned the highest impact. Keyword burst analysis indicated the frontiers and hotspots to be gold nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoparticles. This bibliography analysis provides a comprehensive overview of uncovered current research trends and emerging hotspots of nanomaterials' biological application in myocardial infarction, thus inspiring further investigations.

Targeting the lipid metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages: A novel insight into cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Tumor-associated macrophages, as the major immunocytes in solid tumors, show divided loyalty and remarkable plasticity in tumorigenesis. Once the M2-to-M1 repolarization is achieved, they could be switched from the supporters for tumor development into the guardians for host immunity. Meanwhile, Lipid metabolic reprogramming is demonstrated to be one of the most important hallmarks of tumor-associated macrophages, which plays a decisive role in regulating their phenotypes and functions to promote tumorigenesis and immunotherapy resistance. Therefore, targeting the lipid metabolism of TAMs may provide a new direction for anti-tumor strategies.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we first summarized the origins, classifications and general lipid metabolic process of TAMs. Then we discussed the currently available drugs and interventions that target lipid metabolic disorders of TAMs, including those targeting lipid uptake, efflux, lipolysis, FAO and lipid peroxidation. Besides, based on the recent research status, we summarized the present challenges for this cancer immunotherapy, including the precise drug delivery system, the lipid metabolic heterogeneity, and the intricate lipid metabolic interactions in the TME, and we also proposed corresponding possible solutions. Collectively, we hope this review will give researchers a better understanding of the lipid metabolism of TAMs and lead to the development of corresponding anti-tumor therapies in the future.

Unraveling the complex roles of macrophages in obese adipose tissue: an overview

Macrophages, a heterogeneous population of innate immune cells, exhibit remarkable plasticity and play pivotal roles in coordinating immune responses and maintaining tissue homeostasis within the context of metabolic diseases. The activation of inflammatory macrophages in obese adipose tissue leads to detrimental effects, inducing insulin resistance through increased inflammation, impaired thermogenesis, and adipose tissue fibrosis. Meanwhile, adipose tissue macrophages also play a beneficial role in maintaining adipose tissue homeostasis by regulating angiogenesis, facilitating the clearance of dead adipocytes, and promoting mitochondrial transfer. Exploring the heterogeneity of macrophages in obese adipose tissue is crucial for unraveling the pathogenesis of obesity and holds significant potential for targeted therapeutic interventions. Recently, the dual effects and some potential regulatory mechanisms of macrophages in adipose tissue have been elucidated using single-cell technology. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the intricate activation mechanisms and diverse functions of macrophages in adipose tissue during obesity, as well as explore the potential of drug delivery systems targeting macrophages, aiming to enhance the understanding of current regulatory mechanisms that may be potentially targeted for treating obesity or metabolic diseases.

Encapsulating Naringenin in biomimetic proteolipid vesicles abrogates cancer metastasis by targeting apoptotic signaling axis

Naringenin (NG) belongs to the class of flavanones having impressive pharmacological properties. Unfortunately, the in vivo bioavailability of NG is very low due to its higher hydrophobicity, which limits its practical use. Thus, in this study, we tried to develop NG-loaded macrophage membrane-coated liposome-based biomimetic nanoparticles with distinct physicochemical compositions and biological attributes for improving their bioavailability at the target site. The developed biomimetic nanoparticle (BNP) has shown good biocompatibility, stability, satisfactory particle size, pH-responsive drug (NG) release kinetics, and higher cellular uptake in vitro. The anti-metastatic efficacy of NGBNP has confirmed in syngeneic athymic BALB/c nude experimental models. By western blot analysis, semi-quantitative PCR, real-time PCR, and IHC, we conclude that NGBNP gets localized on the metastatic niche via its surface receptor α4, β1 integrin, and VCAM1 of metastatic cells and reduces the number of metastatic colonies in the lungs via regulating the apoptotic signaling axis.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

Drug-Loaded Biomimetic Carriers for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy: Advances and Perspective

Chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for the lymphoma patient population, despite its relatively poor therapeutic results, high toxicity, and low specificity. With the advancement of biotechnology, the significance of drug-loading biomimetic materials in the medical field has become increasingly evident, attracting extensive attention from the scientific community and the pharmaceutical industry. Given that they can cater to the particular requirements of lymphoma patients, drug-loading biomimetic materials have recently become a potent and promising delivery approach for various applications. This review mainly reviews the recent advancements in the treatment of tumors with biological drug carrier-loaded drugs, outlines the mechanisms of lymphoma development and the diverse treatment modalities currently available, and discusses the merits and limitations of biological drug carriers. What is more, the practical application of biocarriers in tumors is explored by providing examples, and the possibility of loading such organisms with antilymphoma drugs for the treatment of lymphoma is conceived.

A macrophage cell membrane-coated cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem for combating intracellular bacterial infections

Current antibacterial interventions encounter formidable challenges when confronting intracellular bacteria, attributable to their clustering within phagocytes, particularly macrophages, evading host immunity and resisting antibiotics. Herein, we have developed an intelligent cell membrane-based nanosystem, denoted as MM@DAu NPs, which seamlessly integrates cascade-targeting capabilities with controllable antibacterial functions for the precise elimination of intracellular bacteria. MM@DAu NPs feature a core comprising D-alanine-functionalized gold nanoparticles (DAu NPs) enveloped by a macrophage cell membrane (MM) coating. Upon administration, MM@DAu NPs harness the intrinsic homologous targeting ability of their macrophage membrane to infiltrate bacteria-infected macrophages. Upon internalization within these host cells, exposed DAu NPs from MM@DAu NPs selectively bind to intracellular bacteria through the bacteria-targeting agent, D-alanine present on DAu NPs. This intricate process establishes a cascade mechanism that efficiently targets intracellular bacteria. Upon exposure to near-infrared irradiation, the accumulated DAu NPs surrounding intracellular bacteria induce local hyperthermia, enabling precise clearance of intracellular bacteria. Further validation in animal models infected with the typical intracellular bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, substantiates the exceptional cascade-targeting efficacy and photothermal antibacterial potential of MM@DAu NPs in vivo. Therefore, this integrated cell membrane-based cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem offers a promising approach for conquering persistent intracellular infections without drug resistance risks. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Intracellular bacterial infections lead to treatment failures and relapses because intracellular bacteria could cluster within phagocytes, especially macrophages, evading the host immune system and resisting antibiotics. Herein, we have developed an intelligent cell membrane-based nanosystem MM@DAu NPs, which is designed to precisely eliminate intracellular bacteria through a controllable cascade-targeting photothermal antibacterial approach. MM@DAu NPs combine D-alanine-functionalized gold nanoparticles with a macrophage cell membrane coating. Upon administration, MM@DAu NPs harness the homologous targeting ability of macrophage membrane to infiltrate bacteria-infected macrophages. Upon internalization, exposed DAu NPs from MM@DAu NPs selectively bind to intracellular bacteria through the bacteria-targeting agent, enabling precise clearance of intracellular bacteria through local hyperthermia. This integrated cell membrane-based cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem offers a promising avenue for conquering persistent intracellular infections without drug resistance risks.

Microfluidics-Prepared Ultra-small Biomimetic Nanovesicles for Brain Tumor Targeting

Blood-brain-barrier (BBB) serves as a fatal guard of the central nervous system as well as a formidable obstacle for the treatment of brain diseases such as brain tumors. Cell membrane-derived nanomedicines are promising drug carriers to achieve BBB-penetrating and brain lesion targeting. However, the challenge of precise size control of such nanomedicines has severely limited their therapeutic effect and clinical application in brain diseases. To address this problem, this work develops a microfluidic mixing platform that enables the fabrication of cell membrane-derived nanovesicles with precise controllability and tunability in particle size and component. Sub-100 nm macrophage plasma membrane-derived vesicles as small as 51 nm (nanoscale macrophage vesicles, NMVs), with a narrow size distribution (polydispersity index, PDI: 0.27) and a high drug loading rate (up to 89% for indocyanine green-loaded NMVs, NMVs@ICG (ICG is indocyanine green)), are achieved through a one-step process. Compared to beyond-100 nm macrophage cell membrane vesicles (general macrophage vesicles, GMVs) prepared via the traditional methods, the new NMVs exhibits rapid (within 1 h post-injection) and enhanced orthotopic glioma targeting (up to 78% enhancement), with no extra surface modification. This work demonstrates the great potential of such real-nanoscale cell membrane-derived nanomedicines in targeted brain tumor theranostics.

Targeting YAP1-regulated Glycolysis in Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes Impairs Macrophage Infiltration to Ameliorate Diabetic Osteoarthritis Progression

The interplay between immune cells/macrophages and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) plays a pivotal role in initiating synovitis; however, their involvement in metabolic disorders, including diabetic osteoarthritis (DOA), is largely unknown. In this study, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is employed to investigate the synovial cell composition of DOA. A significant enrichment of activated macrophages within eight distinct synovial cell clusters is found in DOA synovium. Moreover, it is demonstrated that increased glycolysis in FLSs is a key driver for DOA patients' synovial macrophage infiltration and polarization. In addition, the yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1)/thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) signaling axis is demonstrated to play a crucial role in regulating glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1)-dependent glycolysis in FLSs, thereby controlling the expression of a series of adhesion molecules such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) which may subsequently fine-tune the infiltration of M1-polarized synovial macrophages in DOA patients and db/db diabetic OA mice. For treatment, M1 macrophage membrane-camouflaged Verteporfin (Vt)-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (MVPs) are developed to ameliorate DOA progression by regulating the YAP1/TXNIP signaling axis, thus suppressing the synovial glycolysis and the infiltration of M1-polarized macrophages. The results provide several novel insights into the pathogenesis of DOA and offer a promising treatment approach for DOA.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic technology for cancer phototherapy: Mechanisms, recent advances and perspectives

Despite significant advances in medical technology and antitumour treatments, the diagnosis and treatment of tumours have undergone remarkable transformations. Noninvasive phototherapy methods, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), have gained significant interest in antitumour medicine. However, traditional photosensitisers or photothermal agents face challenges like immune system recognition, rapid clearance from the bloodstream, limited tumour accumulation, and phototoxicity concerns. Researchers combine photosensitisers or photothermal agents with natural cell membranes to overcome these obstacles to create a nano biomimetic therapeutic platform. When used to coat nanoparticles, red blood cells, platelets, cancer cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, and bacterial outer membranes could provide prolonged circulation, tumour targeting, immune stimulation, or antigenicity. This article covers the principles of cellular membrane biomimetic nanotechnology and phototherapy, along with recent advancements in applying nano biomimetic technology to PDT, PTT, PCT, and combined diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, the challenges and issues of using nano biomimetic nanoparticles in phototherapy are discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Currently, there has been significant progress in the field of cell membrane biomimetic technology. Researchers are exploring its potential application in tumor diagnosis and treatment through phototherapy. Scholars have conducted extensive research on combining cell membrane technology and phototherapy in anticancer diagnosis and treatment. This review aims to highlight the mechanisms of phototherapy and the latest advancements in single phototherapy (PTT, PDT) and combination phototherapy (PCT, PRT, and PIT), as well as diagnostic approaches. The review provides an overview of various cell membrane technologies, including RBC membranes, platelet membranes, macrophage cell membranes, tumour cell membranes, bacterial membranes, hybrid membranes, and their potential for anticancer applications under phototherapy. Lastly, the review discusses the challenges and future directions in this field.

Macrophage-related therapeutic strategies: Regulation of phenotypic switching and construction of drug delivery systems

Macrophages, as highly phenotypic plastic immune cells, play diverse roles in different pathological conditions. Changing and controlling the phenotypes of macrophages is considered a novel potential therapeutic intervention. Meanwhile, specific transmembrane proteins anchoring on the surface of the macrophage membrane are relatively conserved, supporting its functional properties, such as inflammatory chemotaxis and tumor targeting. Thus, a series of drug delivery systems related to specific macrophage membrane proteins are commonly used to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes macrophages-based strategies for chronic diseases, discusses the regulation of macrophage phenotypes and their polarization processes, and presents how to design and apply the site-specific targeted drug delivery systems in vivo based on the macrophages and their derived membrane receptors. It aims to provide a better understanding of macrophages in immunoregulation and proposes macrophages-based targeted therapeutic approaches for chronic diseases.

Advent in proteins, nucleic acids, and biological cell membranes functionalized nanocarriers to accomplish active or homologous tumor targeting for smart amalgamated chemotherapy/photo-therapy: A review

Conventional cancer mono-therapeutic approaches including radiotherapy, surgery, and chemotherapy don't always achieve satisfactory outcomes and are frequently associated with significant limitations. Although chemotherapy is a vital intervention, its effectiveness is frequently inadequate and is associated with metastasis, multidrug resistance, off-target effect, and normal cells toxicity. Phototherapies are employed in cancer therapy, encompassing photo-dynamic and photo-thermal therapies which under favorable NIR laser light irradiation initiate the included photosensitizers and photo-thermal agents to generate ROS or thermal heat respectively for cancer cells destruction. Photo-therapy is considered noninvasive, posing no resistance, but it still suffers from several pitfalls like low penetration depth and excessive heat generation affecting neighboring tissues. Improved selectivity and tumor-homing capacity could be attained through surface modulation of nanoparticles with targeting ligands that bind to receptors, which are exclusively overexpressed on cancerous cells. Developing novel modified targeted nanoparticulate platforms integrating different therapeutic modalities like photo-therapy and chemotherapy is a topic of active research. This review aimed to highlight recent advances in proteins, nucleic acids, and biological cell membranes functionalized nanocarriers for smart combinatorial chemotherapy/photo-therapy. Nanocarriers decorated with precise targeting ligands, like aptamers, antibody, and lactoferrin, to achieve active tumor-targeting or camouflaging using various biological cell membrane coating are designed to achieve homologous tumor-targeting.

Bioinspired Approaches for Central Nervous System Targeted Gene Delivery

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) which include a wide range of neurodegenerative and neurological conditions have become a serious global issue. The presence of CNS barriers poses a significant challenge to the progress of designing effective therapeutic delivery systems, limiting the effectiveness of drugs, genes, and other therapeutic agents. Natural nanocarriers present in biological systems have inspired researchers to design unique delivery systems through biomimicry. As natural resource derived delivery systems are more biocompatible, current research has been focused on the development of delivery systems inspired by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and mammalian cells. Despite their structural potential and extensive physiological function, making them an excellent choice for biomaterial engineering, the delivery of nucleic acids remains challenging due to their instability in biological systems. Similarly, the efficient delivery of genetic material within the tissues of interest remains a hurdle due to a lack of selectivity and targeting ability. Considering that gene therapies are the holy grail for intervention in diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Huntington's disease, this review centers around recent advances in bioinspired approaches to gene delivery for the prevention of CNS disorders.

Biomimetic nanoplatform with selectively positioned indocyanine green for accurate sentinel lymph node imaging

The status of draining lymph nodes (LNs) is critical for determining the treatment and prognosis of cancer that spreads through the lymphatic system. Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence imaging has been widely used in sentinel LN (SLN) biopsy technology and has shown favorable effects. However, this too has its own limitations, such as fluorescence instability and diffusion imaging. In this study, we developed macrophage cell membrane-camouflaged ICG-loaded biomimetic nanoparticles (M@F127-ICG) for accurate SLN imaging. ICG selectively positioned at the hydrophobic-hydrophilic interfaces of pluronic F127 micelles protected itself from quenching in aqueous solution, thereby maintaining fluorescence stability and improving fluorescence intensity. In addition, to further improve the aggregation in SLN, the micellar surface was coated with a layer of biomimetic macrophage cell membrane to target LN-resident macrophages. In vivo fluorescence imaging demonstrated that M@F127-ICG significantly enhanced the fluorescence signal and improved the imaging efficiency of SLN. Thus, selectively positioning ICG in the biomimetic nanoplatform enhanced the fluorescence intensity and stability, providing a novel tracer for timely and accurate SLN imaging.

Exploiting innate immunity for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapies have revolutionized the treatment paradigms of various types of cancers. However, most of these immunomodulatory strategies focus on harnessing adaptive immunity, mainly by inhibiting immunosuppressive signaling with immune checkpoint blockade, or enhancing immunostimulatory signaling with bispecific T cell engager and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell. Although these agents have already achieved great success, only a tiny percentage of patients could benefit from immunotherapies. Actually, immunotherapy efficacy is determined by multiple components in the tumor microenvironment beyond adaptive immunity. Cells from the innate arm of the immune system, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, neutrophils, natural killer cells, and unconventional T cells, also participate in cancer immune evasion and surveillance. Considering that the innate arm is the cornerstone of the antitumor immune response, utilizing innate immunity provides potential therapeutic options for cancer control. Up to now, strategies exploiting innate immunity, such as agonists of stimulator of interferon genes, CAR-macrophage or -natural killer cell therapies, metabolic regulators, and novel immune checkpoint blockade, have exhibited potent antitumor activities in preclinical and clinical studies. Here, we summarize the latest insights into the potential roles of innate cells in antitumor immunity and discuss the advances in innate arm-targeted therapeutic strategies.

Core-shell inorganic NP@MOF nanostructures for targeted drug delivery and multimodal imaging-guided combination tumor treatment

It is well known that metal-organic framework (MOF) nanostructures have unique characteristics such as high porosity, large surface areas and adjustable functionalities, so they are ideal candidates for developing drug delivery systems (DDSs) as well as theranostic platforms in cancer treatment. Despite the large number of MOF nanostructures that have been discovered, conventional MOF-derived nanosystems only have a single biofunctional MOF source with poor colloidal stability. Accordingly, developing core-shell MOF nanostructures with good colloidal stability is a useful method for generating efficient drug delivery, multimodal imaging and synergistic therapeutic systems. The preparation of core-shell MOF nanostructures has been done with a variety of materials, but inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) are highly effective for drug delivery and imaging-guided tumor treatment. Herein, we aimed to overview the synthesis of core-shell inorganic NP@MOF nanostructures followed by the application of core-shell MOFs derived from magnetic, quantum dots (QDs), gold (Au), and gadolinium (Gd) NPs in drug delivery and imaging-guided tumor treatment. Afterward, we surveyed different factors affecting prolonged drug delivery and cancer therapy, cellular uptake, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect of core-shell MOFs. Last but not least, we discussed the challenges and the prospects of the field. We envision this article may hold great promise in providing valuable insights regarding the application of hybrid nanostructures as promising and potential candidates for multimodal imaging-guided combination cancer therapy.

Arthritic Microenvironment-Dictated Fate Decisions for Stem Cells in Cartilage Repair

The microenvironment and stem cell fate guidance of post-traumatic articular cartilage regeneration is primarily the focus of cartilage tissue engineering. In articular cartilage, stem cells are characterized by overlapping lineages and uneven effectiveness. Within the first 12 weeks after trauma, the articular inflammatory microenvironment (AIME) plays a decisive role in determining the fate of stem cells and cartilage. The development of fibrocartilage and osteophyte hyperplasia is an adverse outcome of chronic inflammation, which results from an imbalance in the AIME during the cartilage tissue repair process. In this review, the sources for the different types of stem cells and their fate are summarized. The main pathophysiological events that occur within the AIME as well as their protagonists are also discussed. Additionally, regulatory strategies that may guide the fate of stem cells within the AIME are proposed. Finally, strategies that provide insight into AIME pathophysiology are discussed and the design of new materials that match the post-traumatic progress of AIME pathophysiology in a spatial and temporal manner is guided. Thus, by regulating an appropriately modified inflammatory microenvironment, efficient stem cell-mediated tissue repair may be achieved.

Tumor-associated macrophages in nanomaterial-based anti-tumor therapy: as target spots or delivery platforms

Targeting tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) has emerged as a promising approach in cancer therapy. This article provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in the field of nanomedicines targeting TAMs. According to the crucial role of TAMs in tumor progression, strategies to inhibit macrophage recruitment, suppress TAM survival, and transform TAM phenotypes are discussed as potential therapeutic avenues. To enhance the targeting capacity of nanomedicines, various approaches such as the use of ligands, immunoglobulins, and short peptides are explored. The utilization of live programmed macrophages, macrophage cell membrane-coated nanoparticles and macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles as drug delivery platforms is also highlighted, offering improved biocompatibility and prolonged circulation time. However, challenges remain in achieving precise targeting and controlled drug release. The heterogeneity of TAMs and the variability of surface markers pose hurdles in achieving specific recognition. Furthermore, the safety and clinical applicability of these nanomedicines requires further investigation. In conclusion, nanomedicines targeting TAMs hold great promise in cancer therapy, offering enhanced specificity and reduced side effects. Addressing the existing limitations and expanding our understanding of TAM biology will pave the way for the successful translation of these nano-therapies into clinical practice.

Nature-inspired nanocarriers for improving drug therapy of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) has emerged as one of the prevalent arterial vascular diseases characterized by plaque and inflammation, primarily causing disability and mortality globally. Drug therapy remains the main treatment for AS. However, a series of obstacles hinder effective drug delivery. Nature, from natural micro-/nano-structural biological particles like natural cells and extracellular vesicles to the distinctions between the normal and pathological microenvironment, offers compelling solutions for efficient drug delivery. Nature-inspired nanocarriers of synthetic stimulus-responsive materials and natural components, such as lipids, proteins and membrane structures, have emerged as promising candidates for fulfilling drug delivery needs. These nanocarriers offer several advantages, including prolonged blood circulation, targeted plaque delivery, targeted specific cells delivery and controlled drug release at the action site. In this review, we discuss the nature-inspired nanocarriers which leverage the natural properties of cells or the microenvironment to improve atherosclerotic drug therapy. Finally, we provide an overview of the challenges and opportunities of applying these innovative nature-inspired nanocarriers.

Macrophage-reprogramming upconverting nanoparticles for enhanced TAM-mediated antitumor therapy of hypoxic breast cancer

In an attempt to achieve antitumor effects by switching the phenotype of macrophages from the tumor-promoting M2 type to the tumor-suppressing M1 type, we fabricated mannose-decorated/macrophage membrane-coated, silica-layered NaErF4@NaLuF4 upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) co-doped with perfluorocarbon (PFC)/chlorin e6 (Ce6) and loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) (UCNP@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX: ∼61 nm; -11.6 mV). These nanoparticles were designed to have two major functionalities, (i) efficient singlet oxygen generation aided by an oxygen supply and (ii) good targeting to tumor-associated macrophage (TAMs) (M2-type), to induce polarization to M1 type macrophages that release proinflammatory cytokines and suppress breast cancers. The primary UCNPs consisted of lanthanide elements (erbium and lutetium) in a core@shell structure, and they facilely emitted 660 nm light in response to a deep-penetrating 808 nm near-infrared laser. Moreover, the UCNPs@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX were able to release O2 and generate 1O2 because of the co-doped PFC/Ce6 and upconversion. Our nanocarriers' excellent uptake to RAW 264.7 macrophage cells (M2 type) and efficient M1-type polarization activity were clearly demonstrated using qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence-based confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our nanocarriers displayed significant cytotoxicity to 4T1 cells in 2D culture and 3D co-culture systems of 4T1/RAW 264.7 cells. More importantly, UCNPs@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX (+808 nm laser) noticeably suppressed tumor growth in 4T1-xenografted mice, compared with the other treatment groups (332.4 vs. 709.5-1185.5 mm3). We attribute this antitumor efficacy to the prominent M1-type macrophage polarization caused by our nanocarriers through efficient ROS/O2 generation and targeting of M2-type TAMs via mannose ligands on coated macrophage-membrane.

The applications of functional materials-based nano-formulations in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammation-related diseases

Chronic inflammation, in general, refers to systemic immune abnormalities most often caused by the environment or lifestyle, which is the basis for various skin diseases, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases, digestive diseases, cancer, and so on. Therapeutic strategies have focused on immunosuppression and anti-inflammation, but conventional approaches have been poor in enhancing the substantive therapeutic effect of drugs. Nanomaterials continue to attract attention for their high flexibility, durability and simplicity of preparation, as well as high profitability. Nanotechnology is used in various areas of clinical medicine, such as medical diagnosis, monitoring and treatment. However, some related problems cannot be ignored, including various cytotoxic and worsening inflammation caused by the nanomaterials themselves. This paper provides an overview of functional nanomaterial formulations for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammation-related diseases, with the intention of providing some reference for the enhancement and optimization of existing therapeutic approaches.

Engineered macrophage-biomimetic versatile nanoantidotes for inflammation-targeted therapy against Alzheimer's disease by neurotoxin neutralization and immune recognition suppression

Immune recognition of excessive neurotoxins by microglia is a trigger for the onset of neuroinflammation in the brain, leading to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Blocking active recognition of microglia while removing neurotoxins holds promise for fundamentally alleviating neurotoxin-induced immune responses, but is very challenging. Herein, an engineered macrophage-biomimetic versatile nanoantidote (OT-Lipo@M) is developed for inflammation-targeted therapy against AD by neurotoxin neutralization and immune recognition suppression. Coating macrophage membranes can not only endow OT-Lipo@M with anti-phagocytic and inflammation-tropism capabilities to target inflammatory lesions in AD brain, but also efficiently reduce neurotoxin levels to prevent them from activating microglia. The loaded oxytocin (OT) can be slowly released to downregulate the expression of immune recognition site Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on microglia, inhibiting TLR4-mediated pro-inflammatory signalling cascade. Benefiting from this two-pronged immunosuppressive strategy, OT-Lipo@M exhibits outstanding therapeutic effects on ameliorating cognitive deficits, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, and enhancing synaptic plasticity in AD mice, accompanied by the delayed hippocampal atrophy and brain microstructural disruption by in vivo 9.4T MR imaging. This work provides new insights into potential AD therapeutics targeting microglia-mediated neuroinflammation at the source.

Biomimetic Cell-Derived Nanoparticles: Emerging Platforms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy can significantly prevent tumor growth and metastasis by activating the autoimmune system without destroying normal cells. Although cancer immunotherapy has made some achievements in clinical cancer treatment, it is still restricted by systemic immunotoxicity, immune cell dysfunction, cancer heterogeneity, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME). Biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles are attracting considerable interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower immunogenicity. Moreover, biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles can achieve different preferred biological effects due to their inherent abundant source cell-relevant functions. This review summarizes the latest developments in biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy, discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in cancer immunotherapy, and analyzes the challenges for clinical transformation.

Phytochemicals and Cancer Treatment: Cell-Derived and Biomimetic Vesicles as Promising Carriers

The majority of anticancer agents currently used derive from natural sources: plants, frequently the ones employed in traditional medicines, are an abundant source of mono- and diterpenes, polyphenols, and alkaloids that exert antitumor activity through diverse mechanisms. Unfortunately, many of these molecules are affected by poor pharmacokinetics and limited specificity, shortcomings that may be overcome by incorporating them into nanovehicles. Cell-derived nanovesicles have recently risen to prominence, due to their biocompatibility, low immunogenicity and, above all, targeting properties. However, due to difficult scalability, the industrial production of biologically-derived vesicles and consequent application in clinics is difficult. As an efficient alternative, bioinspired vesicles deriving from the hybridization of cell-derived and artificial membranes have been conceived, revealing high flexibility and appropriate drug delivery ability. In this review, the most recent advances in the application of these vesicles to the targeted delivery of anticancer actives obtained from plants are presented, with specific focus on vehicle manufacture and characterization, and effectiveness evaluation performed through in vitro and in vivo assays. The emerging overall outlook appears promising in terms of efficient drug loading and selective targeting of tumor cells, suggesting further engrossing developments in the future.

ROS Scavenging and inflammation-directed polydopamine nanoparticles regulate gut immunity and flora therapy in inflammatory bowel disease

Dysfunction of the intestinal mucosal immune system and dysbiosis of the intestinal microflora can induce inflammatory bowel disease. However, drug-mediated clinical treatment remains a challenge due to its poor therapeutic efficacy and severe side effects. Herein, a ROS scavenging and inflammation-directed nanomedicine is designed and fabricated by coupling polydopamine nanoparticles with mCRAMP, an antimicrobial peptide, while wrapping macrophage membrane in the outer layer. The designed nanomedicine reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and elevate the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine in vivo and in vitro inflammation models, demonstrating its significant ability of improving inflammatory responses. Importantly, the macrophage membrane encapsulated nanoparticles exhibit the obviously enhanced targeting performance in local inflamed tissues. Furthermore, the 16S rRNA sequencing of fecal microorganisms showed that probiotics increased and pathogenic bacteria were inhibited after oral delivery the nanomedicine, indicating that the designed nano platform played a significant role in optimizing intestinal microbiome. Taken together, the designed nanomedicine are not only easy to prepare and exhibit high biocompatibility, but also show the inflammatory targeting property, anti-inflammatory function and positive regulation of intestinal flora, thus providing a new idea for the intervention and treatment of colitis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a chronic and intractable disease, may lead to colon cancer in severe cases without effective treatment. However, clinical drugs are largely ineffective owing to insufficient therapeutic efficacies and side effects. Herein, we constructed a biomimetic polydopamine nanoparticle for oral administration to treat the IBD by modulating mucosal immune homeostasis and optimizing intestinal microorganisms. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that the designed nanomedicine not only exhibits the anti-inflammatory function and inflammatory targeting property but also positively regulate the gut microflora. Taken together, the designed nanomedicine combined immunoregulation and intestinal microecology modulation to significantly enhance the therapeutic effect on colitis in mice, thus providing a new approach for the clinical treatment of colitis.

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Immune clearance and insufficient targeting have limited the efficacy of existing therapeutic strategies for cancer. Toxic side effects and individual differences in response to treatment have further limited the benefits of clinical treatment for patients. Biomimetic cancer cell membrane-based nanotechnology has provided a new approach for biomedicine to overcome these obstacles. Biomimetic nanoparticles exhibit various effects (e.g., homotypic targeting, prolonging drug circulation, regulating the immune system, and penetrating biological barriers) after encapsulation by cancer cell membranes. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic methods will also be improved by utilizing the properties of cancer cell membranes. In this review, different properties and functions of cancer cell membranes are presented. Utilizing these advantages, nanoparticles can exhibit unique therapeutic capabilities in various types of diseases, such as solid tumors, hematological malignancies, immune system diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, cancer cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles show improved effectiveness and efficiency in combination with current diagnostic and therapeutic methods, which will contribute to the development of individualized treatments. This strategy has promising clinical translation prospects, and the associated challenges are discussed.

Macrophage cell membrane infused biomimetic liposomes for glioblastoma targeted therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly aggressive malignant brain tumor currently without an effective treatment. Inspired by the recent advances in cell membrane biomimetic nanocarriers and by the key role of macrophages in GBM pathology, we developed macrophage membrane liposomes (MML) for GBM targeting. For the first time, it was assessed the role of macrophage polarization states in the effectiveness of these drug delivery systems. Interestingly, we observed that MML derived from M2 macrophages (M2 MML) presents higher uptake and increased delivery of the anticarcinogenic drug doxorubicin compared to M1 macrophage-derived nanocarriers (M1 MML) and control liposomes (CL). Moreover, the lowest uptake by macrophages of MML reveals promising immune escaping properties. Notably, M2 macrophages unveiled a higher expression of integrin CD49d, a crucial protein involved in the bilateral communication of macrophages with tumor cells. Therefore, our findings suggest the potential of using M2 macrophage membranes to develop novel nanocarriers targeting GBM.

Implications of biomimetic nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery

Nanomaterials and nanostructures have shown fascinating performances in various biomedicine fields, from cosmetic to cancer diagnosis and therapy. Engineered nanomaterials can encapsulate both lipophilic and hydrophilic substances/drugs to eliminate their limitations in the free forms, such as low bioavailability, multiple drug administration, off-target effects, and various side effects. Moreover, it is possible to deliver the loaded cargo to the desired site of action using engineered nanomaterials. One approach that has made nanocarriers more sophisticated is the "biomimetic" concept. In this scenario, biomolecules (e.g., natural proteins, peptides, phospholipids, cell membranes) are used as building blocks to construct nanocarriers and/or modify agents. For instance, it has been reported that specific cells tend to migrate to a particular site during specific circumstances (e.g., inflammation, tumor formation). Employing the cell membrane of these cells as a coating for nanocarriers confers practical targeting approaches. Accordingly, we introduce the biomimetic concept in the current study, review the recent studies, challenge the issues, and provide practical solutions.

Nanomaterials targeting macrophages in sepsis: A promising approach for sepsis management

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction resulting from dysregulated host responses to infection. Macrophages play significant roles in host against pathogens and the immunopathogenesis of sepsis, such as phagocytosis of pathogens, secretion of cytokines, and phenotype reprogramming. However, the rapid progression of sepsis impairs macrophage function, and conventional antimicrobial and supportive treatment are not sufficient to restore dysregulated macrophages roles. Nanoparticles own unique physicochemical properties, surface functions, localized surface plasmon resonance phenomenon, passive targeting in vivo, good biocompatibility and biodegradability, are accessible for biomedical applications. Once into the body, NPs are recognized by host immune system. Macrophages are phagocytes in innate immunity dedicated to the recognition of foreign substances, including nanoparticles, with which an immune response subsequently occurs. Various design strategies, such as surface functionalization, have been implemented to manipulate the recognition of nanoparticles by monocytes/macrophages, and engulfed by them to regulate their function in sepsis, compensating for the shortcomings of sepsis traditional methods. The review summarizes the mechanism of nanomaterials targeting macrophages and recent advances in nanomedicine targeting macrophages in sepsis, which provides good insight for exploring macrophage-based nano-management in sepsis.

Pro-efferocytic macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles for the synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis via competition effect

Macrophages participate in many links in the pathological process of atherosclerosis (AS) and the regulation of influence of macrophages at the molecular level might be a new avenue for AS treatment. For this aim, the macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles, derived from macrophage membrane coated SHP1i-loaded liposome NPs (MM@Lips-SHP1i) was designed. Due to the reservation of intrinsic membrane proteins and function from macrophages, the biomimic nanoparticles could effectively evade clearance by the immune system, prolong blood circulation time and actively tend and aggregate to atherosclerotic plaques. More importantly, in the plaque area, MM@Lips-SHP1i nanoparticles could compete with macrophages in vivo to bind with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), reduce uptake of new lipids by macrophages, reduce foam cell formation, and inhibit the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, small molecule inhibitor of SHP-1, the downstream effector molecule of CD47 loaded in macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles could interrupt CD47-SIRPα signal transduction in monocytes and macrophages, thereby enhancing the efferocytosis of macrophages, inhibiting the progression of plaque, achieving synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis. This work focuses on the key process in the formation of AS, macrophage foaming and chronic inflammation, and is based on the fact that macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles can preserve the key surface proteins of macrophages closely related to the formation of AS, providing a new avenue to inhibit the progression of AS by utilizing the biological characteristics of macrophage membrane in macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles.

A Macrophage Membrane-Polymer Hybrid Biomimetic Nanoplatform for Therapeutic Delivery of Somatostatin Peptide to Chronic Pancreatitis

The clinical translation of therapeutic peptides is generally challenged by multiple issues involving absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. In this study, a macrophage membrane-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanodelivery system was developed to enhance the bioavailability of the somatostatin (SST) peptide, which faces the hurdles of short half-life and potential side effects in the treatment of chronic pancreatitis. Using a facile nanoprecipitation strategy, SST was loaded in the nanoparticles with an encapsulation efficiency (EE) and a loading efficiency (LE) of 73.68 ± 3.56% and 1.47 ± 0.07%, respectively. The final formulation of SST-loaded nanoparticles with the camouflage of macrophage membrane (MP-SST) showed a mean diameter of 151 ± 4 nm and an average zeta potential of −29.6 ± 0.3 mV, which were stable long term during storage. With an above 90% cell viability, a hemolysis level of about 2% (<5%) and a preference for being ingested by activated endothelial cells compared to macrophages, the membrane−polymer hybrid nanoparticle showed biocompatibility and targeting capability in vitro. After being intravenously administered to mice with chronic pancreatitis, the MP-SST increased the content of SST in the serum (123.6 ± 13.6 pg/mL) and pancreas (1144.9 ± 206.2 pg/g) compared to the treatment of (Dulbecco’s phosphate-buffered saline) DPBS (61.7 ± 6.0 pg/mL in serum and 740.2 ± 172.4 pg/g in the pancreas). The recovery of SST by MP-SST downregulated the expressions of chronic pancreatitis-related factors and alleviated the histologic severity of the pancreas to the greatest extent compared to other treatment groups. This augmentation of SST therapeutic effects demonstrated the superiority of integrating the synthetic polymer with biological membranes in the design of nanoplatforms for advanced and smart peptide delivery. Other peptides like SST can also be delivered via the membrane−polymer hybrid nanosystem for the treatment of diseases, broadening and promoting the potential clinical applications of peptides as therapeutics.

Macrophage Cell Membrane-Cloaked Nanoplatforms for Biomedical Applications

Biomimetic approaches utilize natural cell membrane-derived nanovesicles to camouflage nanoparticles to circumvent some limitations of nanoscale materials. This emergent cell membrane-coating technology is inspired by naturally occurring intercellular interactions, to efficiently guide nanostructures to the desired locations, thereby increasing both therapeutic efficacy and safety. In addition, the intrinsic biocompatibility of cell membranes allows the crossing of biological barriers and avoids elimination by the immune system. This results in enhanced blood circulation time and lower toxicity in vivo. Macrophages are the major phagocytic cells of the innate immune system. They are equipped with a complex repertoire of surface receptors, enabling them to respond to biological signals, and to exhibit a natural tropism to inflammatory sites and tumorous tissues. Macrophage cell membrane-functionalized nanosystems are designed to combine the advantages of both macrophages and nanomaterials, improving the ability of those nanosystems to reach target sites. Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of these biomimetic nanosystems for targeted delivery of drugs and imaging agents to tumors, inflammatory, and infected sites. The present review covers the preparation and biomedical applications of macrophage cell membrane-coated nanosystems. Challenges and future perspectives in the development of these membrane-coated nanosystems are addressed.

Recent Advances in Poly(α-L-glutamic acid)-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery

Poly(α-L-glutamic acid) (PGA) is a class of synthetic polypeptides composed of the monomeric unit α-L-glutamic acid. Owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity, PGA-based nanomaterials have been elaborately designed for drug delivery systems. Relevant studies including the latest research results on PGA-based nanomaterials for drug delivery have been discussed in this work. The following related topics are summarized as: (1) a brief description of the synthetic strategies of PGAs; (2) an elaborated presentation of the evolving applications of PGA in the areas of drug delivery, including the rational design, precise fabrication, and biological evaluation; (3) a profound discussion on the further development of PGA-based nanomaterials in drug delivery. In summary, the unique structures and superior properties enables PGA-based nanomaterials to represent as an enormous potential in biomaterials-related drug delivery areas.