Sex-specific effects of gut microbiome on shaping bile acid metabolism

Gut microbiome is a group of microorganisms that plays important roles in contributing to health and diseases. These bacterial compositions have been demonstrated to impact bile acids (BAs) profiles, either by directly metabolizing primary BAs to secondary BAs or indirect ways through host metabolism by influencing BAs synthesis, transportation and conjugation in liver. It has been observed sexually dimorphic gut microbiome and bile acids composition, with variations in expression levels of bile acid metabolizing genes in the liver. However, associations between sex-specific differences in gut microbiome and BAs profiles are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate whether gut microbiome could influence BAs profiles in host in a sexspecific manner. We transplanted cecum feces of male and female C57BL/6 mice to male mice and measured BAs concentrations in feces, serum and liver samples 7 days after fecal transplantation. We found different BAs profiles between mice with male and female gut microbiome, including altering levels and proportions of secondary BAs. We also observed varied expression levels of genes related to bile acid metabolism in the liver and distal ileum. Our results highlight sex-specific effects of gut microbiome on shaping bile acid metabolism through gut bacteria and regulation of host genes.

Long- and short-term dietary β-glucan improves intestinal health and disease resistance in pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus♂ × Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀)

β-Glucans are immunostimulants and are widely used in aquaculture industry. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different periods of β-glucan management on growth performance, intestinal health, and disease resistance in pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus♂ × Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀). A commercial feed was used as control diet (CD), and the β-glucan diet (βD) was based on CD and further supplemented with 0.1% β-glucan. Grouper in control and long-term β-glucan diet (LGD) groups were fed with CD and βD for 8 weeks, respectively. Groupers in short-term β-glucan diet (SGD) group were fed with CD for the first 4 weeks and βD for the last 4 weeks. We found that LGD and SGD had no effect on growth performance but reduced the mortalities of grouper after challenging with Vibrio harveyi. In addition, both LGD and SGD increased intestinal morphology, enhanced antioxidant capacity, enhanced immunity, inhibited apoptosis, altered the transcriptional profile, and activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway in the intestine of grouper. Furthermore, the effect of LGD on most of the above parameters was comparable to that of SGD. In conclusion, LGD and SGD did not affect growth rate parameters but enhanced the intestinal health and disease resistance of pearl gentian grouper.

Response signatures of intestinal microbiota and gene transcription of the pearl gentian grouper to Vibrio harveyi infection

Vibrio harveyi causes high mortality and severely limits grouper culture. The gut microbiota is an important biological barrier against pathogen invasion. In this study, we investigated dynamic changes in the intestinal microbial community, gene transcription and immune responses signatures of pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♂ × Epinephelus lanceolatus♀) at 0, 3 and 7 days (referred to as d0, d3 and d7 groups, respectively) after infection with V. harveyi. The results demonstrated that the d7 treatment reduced the gut microbial diversity and increased the proportion of Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria. Notably, several putative pathogenic genera (Sphingomonas and Bacteroides) proliferated, while putative probiotic genera (Rhodococcus and Lactobacillus) reduced, and these changes in intestinal bacteria might be correlated to the alterations of host immune-related molecules. The d3 and d7 treatments also altered the histomorphology and gene transcription profiles mainly associated with immune function in intestine, such as 'MAPK signaling pathway', 'Apoptosis' and 'Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway'. Furthermore, d3 group induced a homeostatic dysregulation of the antioxidant system, cytokines and TLR signaling, with a tendency to gradually return to a normal state in d7 group, along with the apoptosis process. The pathogenic infection suppressed the expression of JNK pathway and enhanced the ERK pathway. In conclusion, the dysbiosis of the intestinal bacterial communities caused by the immune changes that occurred during V. harveyi infection disrupted the intestine health in the pearl gentian grouper. These results provided a comprehensive understandings of the immune defense mechanisms in fish and valuable references to develop disease control strategies in grouper aquaculture.

Fermented bile acids improved growth performance and intestinal health by altering metabolic profiles and intestinal microbiome in Micropterus salmoides

A type of fermented bile acids (FBAs) has been produced through a biological method, and its effects on growth performance, metabolism, and intestinal microbiota in largemouth bass were investigated. The results demonstrated that incorporating 0.03 %-0.05 % FBAs diet could improve the final weight, weight gain and specific growth rate, and decrease the feed conversion ratio. Dietary FBAs did not significantly affect the levels of high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides, but decreased the activities of α-amylase in most groups. Adding FBAs to the diet significantly increased the integrity of the microscopic structure of the intestine, thickened the muscular layer of the intestine, and notably enhanced its intestinal barrier function. The addition of FBAs to the diet increased the diversity of the gut microbiota in largemouth bass. At the phylum level, there was an increase in the abundance of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Tenericutes and Cyanobacteria and a significant decrease in Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. At the genus level, the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria Mycoplasma in the GN6 group and Coprococcus in the GN4 group significantly increased, while the pathogenic Enhydrobacter was inhibited. Meanwhile, the highest levels of AKP and ACP were observed in the groups treated with 0.03 % FBAs, while the highest levels of TNF-α and IL-10 were detected in the group treated with 0.04 % FBAs. Additionally, the highest levels of IL-1β, IL-8T, GF-β, IGF-1, and IFN-γ were noted in the group treated with 0.06 % FBAs. These results suggested that dietary FBAs improved growth performance and intestinal wall health by altering lipid metabolic profiles and intestinal microbiota in largemouth bass.

Dietary chenodeoxycholic acid attenuates high-fat diet-induced growth retardation, lipid accumulation and bile acid metabolism disorder in the liver of yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco

This experiment was conducted to investigate whether dietary chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) could attenuate high-fat (HF) diet-induced growth retardation, lipid accumulation and bile acid (BA) metabolism disorder in the liver of yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco. Yellow catfish (initial weight: 4·40 (sem 0·08) g) were fed four diets: the control (105·8 g/kg lipid), HF diet (HF group, 159·6 g/kg lipid), the control supplemented with 0·9 g/kg CDCA (CDCA group) and HF diet supplemented with 0·9 g/kg CDCA (HF + CDCA group). CDCA supplemented in the HF diet significantly improved growth performance and feed utilisation of yellow catfish (P < 0·05). CDCA alleviated HF-induced increment of hepatic lipid and cholesterol contents by down-regulating the expressions of lipogenesis-related genes and proteins and up-regulating the expressions of lipololysis-related genes and proteins. Compared with the control group, CDCA group significantly reduced cholesterol level (P < 0·05). CDCA significantly inhibited BA biosynthesis and changed BA profile by activating farnesoid X receptor (P < 0·05). The contents of CDCA, taurochenodeoxycholic acid and glycochenodeoxycholic acid were significantly increased with the supplementation of CDCA (P < 0·05). HF-induced elevation of cholic acid content was significantly attenuated by the supplementation of CDCA (P < 0·05). Supplementation of CDCA in the control and HF groups could improve the liver antioxidant capacity. This study proved that CDCA could improve growth retardation, lipid accumulation and BA metabolism disorder induced by HF diet, which provided new insight into understanding the physiological functions of BA in fish.

Muscular lipidomics and transcriptomics reveal the effects of bile acids on lipid metabolism in high-fat diet-fed grouper

Little information is available on how exogenous bile acids alter lipid metabolism in muscle of fish. In the present study, an 8-week feeding trial were used to investigate the impacts of bile acids on lipid deposition, lipid metabolism, lipidomics, and transcriptomics in muscle of pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀ × E. lanceolatus♂) fed a high-fat diet (HD). The HD treatment significantly increased the crude lipid content, while bile acids diet (BD) treatment decreased it (p = 0.057). BD treatment significantly decreased triglycerides level and significantly increased phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines, and phosphatidylglycerol levels. The contents of TG (17:0/18:2/18:2), TG (17:1/18:2/22:6), PC (6:0/22:1), PC (9:0/26:1), PC (26:1/6:0), PC (17:2/18:2), PE (16:0/18:1), PE (18:0/17:1), PG (18:0/20:5), PG (18:3/20:5), PG (19:0/16:1), and PG (18:0/18:1) in muscle were well response to dietary lipid level and bile acids supplementation. HD and BD groups induced a variety of adaptive metabolic responses in transcriptomics. HD treatment increased the lipogenesis and decreased lipolysis, whereas BD treatment decreased the lipogenesis and increased lipolysis. Present study revealed the improvement of muscular lipid metabolism and lipid composition in response to bile acids administration in pearl gentian grouper.

Resveratrol ameliorates intestinal lipid metabolism through the PPAR signaling pathway in high-fat diet-fed red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Feeding high-fat (HF) diets has been shown to cause hepatic and intestinal impairment in fish species, but the mode of action, especially the pathways involved in the intestine, has not been determined yet. In this study, the effects of resveratrol (RES) supplementation on the intestinal structure, microbial flora, and fat metabolism in red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were determined. The results showed RES maintained the structural integrity of the intestine and significantly increased the number of goblet cells in the midgut. RES significantly induced interferon (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, serumal and fecal trimetlylamine oxide (TMAO) and lipopolysaccharides (LPS), intestinal acetic acid levels. However, the concentrations of bound bile acids increased in HF-fed red tilapia. Atp5fa1 and Pafah1b3 significantly increased, Pmt and Acss2 significantly decreased, respectively, with RES supplementation, which was alleviated and retained at the same level in the selisistat (EX527) group. While for transcriptome and proteomics results, RES was found to promote fatty acid β-oxidation and arachidonic acid metabolism associated with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway. The next validation experiment showed some genes related to apoptosis and fatty acid metabolism pathways were altered by RES supplementation. Namely, sn6, loc100702698, new_14481, and prkaa1 were upregulated, while ffrs1, ap3s1, and loc100705861 were downregulated. RES significantly increased Planctomycetes and Verrucomicrobia while decreased Moonvirus, Citrobacter, and Pseudomonas. Akkermansia and Fusobacterium significantly increased and Aeromonas significantly decreased. Thus, unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis significantly increased and carbohydrate/energy metabolism decreased. To conclude, RES enabled the body to complete fatty acid β-oxidation and arachidonic acid metabolism, whereas the addition of inhibitors increased the expression of the phagosome transcriptome and reduced fatty acid β-oxidative metabolism.

Influence of dietary sodium taurocholate on the growth performance and liver health of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Bile acids (BAs) are a class of cholesterol-derived amphipathic molecules approved as new animal feed additives. However, the functional researches mainly focused on BAs mixture, and the influence of the individual BA on fishes was still limited. In the present study, Nile tilapia were fed basal diet with three levels of sodium taurocholate at 0 mg/kg (CON), 300 mg/kg (TCAL), and 600 mg/kg (TCAH) for 8 weeks. The results indicated that addition of sodium taurocholate did not significantly influence the growth performance. Instead, TCAH group had higher cholesterol accumulation with liver fibrosis. In TCAH group, the level of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (nrf2) signaling-associated oxidative stress factors significantly increased in the liver. Additionally, fish in TCAH group had the highest expression level of genes encoding endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and inflammatory cytokines in the liver. In conclusion, 300 mg/kg of sodium taurocholate did not significantly influence the growth performance of fish, while 600 mg/kg of sodium taurocholate markedly induced cholesterol accumulation and liver injury, suggesting that the application of taurocholic acid in aquafeed should be re-evaluated.

Ginsenoside Rk3 modulates gut microbiota and regulates immune response of group 3 innate lymphoid cells to against colorectal tumorigenesis

The gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in the immunomodulatory and protumorigenic microenvironment of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the effect of ginsenoside Rk3 (Rk3) on CRC and gut microbiota remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the potential effect of Rk3 on CRC from the perspective of gut microbiota and immune regulation. Our results reveal that treatment with Rk3 significantly suppresses the formation of colon tumors, repairs intestinal barrier damage, and regulates the gut microbiota imbalance caused by CRC, including enrichment of probiotics such as Akkermansia muciniphila and Barnesiella intestinihominis, and clearance of pathogenic Desulfovibrio. Subsequent metabolomics data demonstrate that Rk3 can modulate the metabolism of amino acids and bile acids, particularly by upregulating glutamine, which has the potential to regulate the immune response. Furthermore, we elucidate the regulatory effects of Rk3 on chemokines and inflammatory factors associated with group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) and T helper 17 (Th17) signaling pathways, which inhibits the hyperactivation of the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (JAK-STAT3) signaling pathway. These results indicate that Rk3 modulates gut microbiota, regulates ILC3s immune response, and inhibits the JAK-STAT3 signaling pathway to suppress the development of colon tumors. More importantly, the results of fecal microbiota transplantation suggest that the inhibitory effect of Rk3 on colon tumors and its regulation of ILC3 immune responses are mediated by the gut microbiota. In summary, these findings emphasize that Rk3 can be utilized as a regulator of the gut microbiota for the prevention and treatment of CRC.

Effect of feeding a dried distillers' grains with solubles diet on the metabolism of the intestinal wall in Guanling crossbred cattle: a preliminary assessment

Dried distillers' grains with solubles (DDGS)-based diets are nutritious and can improve the inflammations and intestinal immunity in livestock. However, there is limited research examining the effect of feeding DDGS-based diets on changes in intestinal metabolites and related pathways in livestock. In this study, six Guanling crossbred cattle (Guizhou Guanling Yellow cattle × Simmental cattle) were selected and divided into a basal diet (BD) group and an experimental group fed with DDGS replacing 25% of the daily ration concentrates (DDGS) (n=3), respectively. Fresh jejunum (J), ileum (I) and cecum (C) tissues were collected for metabolomic analysis. Differential metabolites and metabolic pathways were explored by means of univariate and multivariate statistical analysis. In comparison to the J-BD group, 123 differential metabolites (VIP > 1, p < 0.05) were identified in the J-DDGS group, which (top 20) were mainly divided into superclasses, including lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic acids and derivatives, and organoheterocyclic compounds. Compared with the I-BD group, 47 differential metabolites were obtained in the I-DDGS group, which were mainly divided into superclasses, including lipids and lipid-like molecules and organic acids and derivatives. The C-DDGS vs. C-BD comparison revealed 88 differential metabolites, which were mainly divided into superclasses, including lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic oxygen compounds, and nucleosides. A total of 34 significant metabolic pathways were found (p < 0.05, -log(p) > 1.3). Among them, 3 significant pathways were significantly enriched in the J-DDGS group, 11 significant pathways were significantly enriched in the I-DDGS group, and 20 significant pathways were significantly enriched in the C-DDGS group. Importantly, primary bile acid biosynthesis, linoleic acid metabolism, and arachidonic acid metabolism correlated with intestinal inflammation and immunity by regulating gut microbiota, prostaglandin synthesis, and cell signaling. The data suggest that DDGS-fed cattle unregulated three metabolic pathways mentioned above and that a DDGS-based diet was able to maintain a balance of these three metabolic pathways, thus resulting in improvement of intestinal inflammation and enhanced immunity in cattle. In conclusion, the DDGS diet has the potential to improve intestinal inflammation and enhance the immunity of Guanling crossbred cattle by regulating the metabolic patterns of lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic acids and derivatives, and related metabolic pathways. These results allude to potential metabolic regulatory mechanisms of DDGS diets and also provide a theoretical basis for the application of DDGS in livestock feed.

Effects of Dietary Bile Acids on Growth Performance, Lipid Deposition, and Intestinal Health of Rice Field Eel (Monopterus albus) Fed with High-Lipid Diets

The purpose of this trial was to study the positive effects of bile acids (BAs) on growth performance and intestinal health of rice field eel fed with high-lipid diets (HLDs). Rice field eels (initial weight 17.00 ± 0.10 g) were divided into four groups, each group containing four repetitions and feeding with different isonitrogenous diet: control diet containing 7% lipid content, HLDs containing the lipid content increased to 13%, HLDs supplementing with 0.025% BAs and 0.05% BAs, respectively. After 8 weeks, compared control group, the fish fed HLDs had no significant effect on weight gain rate and specific growth rate (P > 0.05), but increased the lipid deposition in tissues and intestinal lipase activity, and damaged to intestinal oxidative stress, inflammatory response, physical barrier, and structural integrity (P < 0.05). Dietary BAs significantly increased weight gain rate and specific growth rate in fish fed with HL diets (P < 0.05) and reduced feed conversation rate (P < 0.05). Further, the eels fed with BAs reduced the total lipid content in liver, muscle, and whole body (P < 0.05). Dietary BAs decreased the activity of intestinal lipase (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, BAs supplemented in HLDs improved intestinal antioxidant capacity through increasing the activities of T-SOD (total superoxide dismutase), GSH-PX (glutathione peroxidase), CAT (catalase), T-AOC (total antioxidant capacity), whereas reducing MDA (malondialdehyde) content (P < 0.05). Moreover, dietary BAs regulated the mRNA expression related to inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and physical barrier in intestine, such as tnf-α, il-8, tlr-8, il-10, nrf2, keap1, claudin12, and claudin15 (P < 0.05). Dietary BAs supplementation also enhanced the intestinal structural integrity characterized by increased fold height and lamina propria width (P < 0.05). This study showed that dietary BAs supplemented in HLDs (13% lipid) could increase the growth performance of rice field eel, reduce lipid deposition in tissues and whole body, and enhance intestinal health.

Chenodeoxycholic Acid Improves Embryo Implantation and Metabolic Health through Modulating Gut Microbiota-Host Metabolites Interaction during Early Pregnancy

Fetus loss in early pregnancy is of major concern to both humans and animals, and this issue is largely influenced by embryo implantation. Chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), a primary bile acid, contributes to metabolic improvements and protects against intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. However, the effect of CDCA on embryo implantation during early pregnancy has not been investigated. The present study demonstrated that CDCA administration during early pregnancy improved embryo implantation in sows and rats, thereby improving the pregnancy outcomes of sows. CDCA significantly reduced inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance. The metabolomics analysis indicated significant differences in the fecal metabolome, especially regarding the level of secondary bile acids, between the control and CDCA-treated sows. CDCA also influenced the serum metabolite profiles in sows, and the serum L-Histidine level was significantly correlated with the abundance of 19 differential fecal metabolites. Importantly, L-Histidine administration improved embryo implantation and metabolic health in rats during early pregnancy. Moreover, CDCA administration during early pregnancy also led to long-term metabolic improvements in sows. Our data indicated that CDCA improved embryo implantation by alleviating inflammation and oxidative stress, improving insulin sensitivity, and modulating the interaction between the gut microbiota and host metabolites. Therefore, CDCA intervention is a potential therapeutic strategy regarding embryo loss during pregnancy.

Elucidating the mechanisms underlying the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of Laportea bulbifera using integrated serum metabolomics and network pharmacology

Hyperlipidemia is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by alterations in lipid metabolism as well as other pathways. Laportea bulbifera, an indigenous medicinal plant of Chinese herbal medicine, exhibits therapeutic effects on hyperlipidemia, but the mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated the potential mechanisms underlying the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of L. bulbifera using an integrated strategy based on metabolomics and network pharmacology methods that were established to investigate the potential mechanism of anti-hyperlipidemia effect of L. bulbifera. First, the therapeutic effects of L. bulbifera on body weight reduction and biochemical indices were assessed. Next, 18 significant metabolites distinguishing the control and model groups were identified based on serum metabolomics and multivariate analyses. Then, a compound-target network was constructed by linking L. bulbifera and hyperlipidemia using network pharmacology. Three metabolic pathways involved in treating hyperlipidemia were identified. Finally, five crucial targets were selected by constructing a bionetwork starting from the compounds and ending in the metabolites. This study established an integrated strategy based on metabolomics coupled with network pharmacology and revealed the mechanism underlying the protective effects of L. bulbifera against hyperlipidemia for the first time.

Specnuezhenide Ameliorates Age-Related Hepatic Lipid Accumulation via Modulating Bile Acid Homeostasis and Gut Microbiota in D-Galactose-Induced Mice

Age-related hepatic lipid accumulation has become a major health problem in the elderly population. Specnuezhenide (SPN) is a major active iridoid glycoside from an edible herb Fructus Ligustri Lucidi, which is commonly used for preventing age-related diseases. However, the beneficial effects of SPN on age-related liver injury remain unknown. This study aimed to reveal the effect of SPN on age-related hepatic lipid accumulation and the underlying mechanism. D-galactose (D-gal)-induced aging mice were treated with vehicle or SPN for 12 weeks. Treatment of SPN decreased lipid accumulation and inflammation in the liver of D-gal-induced mice. Untargeted and targeted metabolomics showed that the SPN could regulate the bile acid (BA) synthesis pathway and restore the BA compositions in serum, livers, and feces of the D-gal-induced mice. Furthermore, SPN enhanced the protein and mRNA levels of hepatic BAs synthesis enzymes cytochrome P45027A1, cytochrome P4507A1, cytochrome P4507B1, and cytochrome P4508B1. Meanwhile, SPN alleviated D-gal-induced gut dysbiosis and reversed the proportions of microbes associated with bile salt hydrolase activity, including Lactobacillus, Ruminiclostridium, and Butyrivibrio. Our study revealed that SPN attenuated age-related hepatic lipid accumulation by improving BA profiles via modulating hepatic BA synthesis enzymes and gut microbiota.

Replacement of Dietary Fishmeal with Clostridium autoethanogenum Protein on Lipidomics and Lipid Metabolism in Muscle of Pearl Gentian Grouper

Clostridium autoethanogenum protein (CAP) is an economical and alternative protein source. Here, three experimental diets were formulated with CAP replacing 0% (CAP-0), 30% (CAP-30), and 60% (CAP-60) of fishmeal to investigate the alterations of structure integrity, fatty acids profiles, and lipid metabolism in the muscle of pearl gentian grouper. With increasing levels of CAP substitution, the percentages of 16 : 0 or 18 : 0 were decreased in triglycerides (TG) and diacylglycerols (DG); 18 : 1 or 18 : 2 was increased at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions in phosphatidylethanolamines; 20 : 5n-3 was increased in TG and DG. The phosphatidylcholines (PC) (18 : 3/20 : 5), PC(22 : 6/17 : 1), and sphingomyelins (d19 : 0/24 : 4) were identified as potential lipid biomarkers between CAP treatments. The CAP-30 treatment enhanced lipolysis and lipogenesis, while the CAP-60 treatment inhibited lipogenesis. In conclusion, fishmeal replacement with CAP affected the lipid characteristics and lipid metabolism, whereas it did not affect the structural integrity and fatty acids profiles in the muscle of pearl gentian grouper.

Evaluation of Phytosterols as an Alternative to Cholesterol in Practical Diets on Growth and Nonspecific Immunity of Litopenaeus vannamei

This study is aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of phytosterols as an alternative to cholesterol in practical diets of Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei from the perspective of growth and nonspecific immunity. Five diets were formulated to contain different sterol sources and levels. Two diets were supplemented with 1 g/kg cholesterol (LC (low cholesterol)) or phytosterol (LP (low phytosterol)). Other three experimental diets were supplemented with 2 g/kg cholesterol (HC (high cholesterol)), 2 g/kg phytosterol (HP (high phytosterol)), or mixed sterol source (CP, 1 g/kg cholesterol + 1 g/kg phytosterol), respectively. A total of 750 healthy and uniform-sized shrimp (0.52 ± 0.008 g) were randomly distributed into 5 groups with 3 replicates and fed with the five experimental diets for 60 days. Results showed that the growth performance of shrimp was influenced by the sterol levels and supplementation with 2 g/kg sterol level facilitated the growth of shrimp. The inclusion of phytosterol has a cholesterol-lowering effect on shrimp, as evidenced by a reduction in hemolymph cholesterol and triglyceride contents in the HP group. Besides, supplementation with 2 g/kg phytosterol or mixed sterol sources had positive effects on the hemolymph superoxide dismutase, phenol oxidase, and lysozyme as well as hepatopancreas alkaline phosphatase activities, demonstrating that the nonspecific immunity and antioxidative capacity were improved. In conclusion, phytosterols could be an appropriate alternative to partially replace dietary cholesterol in shrimp feeds. This study preliminarily revealed the effects of different sterol sources and levels on the growth and nonspecific immunity of shrimp and provided a basis for further exploration of the mechanism of phytosterol.

Bacillus cereus Alters Bile Acid Composition and Alleviates High-Carbohydrate Diet-Induced Hepatic Lipid Accumulation in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

A high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) can induce excessive fat accumulation in fish, and intestinal microbiota are thought to play important roles in host metabolism. Whether and how intestinal bacteria alleviate the HCD-induced metabolic disorders in fish have attracted more attention. Bacillus cereus was isolated from the intestine content of Nile tilapia. The control diet, high-carbohydrate diet (HC), and HC supplemented with B. cereus Su1 (HCS) were used to feed juvenile Nile tilapia for 8 weeks. The results of the present study showed that B. cereus Su1 supplementation decreased the serum glucose, triglycerides (TG), and reduced hepatic lipid accumulation compared with the HC group. The intestinal bacterial composition analysis suggested that HCS elevated bacterial diversity and the enriched bacteria were closely related to bile acid (BA) metabolism. Higher bile salt hydrolase (BSH) activity was found in the HCS group and B-targeted metabolomic analysis revealed that HCS increased BA content in the intestine and liver compared with HC, including unconjugated BAs (CA and CDCA) and conjugated BAs (TCA, GCA, TCDCA, GCDCA, TDCA, and TUDCA). Furthermore, a high-carbohydrate diet supplemented with B. cereus Su1 significantly enhanced the protein expression of the BA receptor farnesoid X receptor in the liver and decreased significantly the expression level of lipid synthesis-related genes and proteins, while it had no significant effect on lipolysis-related genes and proteins. This study found that B. cereus Su1 altered the intestinal microbiota and bile acid content and composition to regulate the lipid metabolism, revealing the function of the crosstalk among probiotics, intestinal microbiota, and BAs in ameliorating lipid accumulation induced by a high-carbohydrate diet in fish.

Effects of Fishmeal Replacement by Clostridium Autoethanogenum Protein Meal on Cholesterol Bile Acid Metabolism, Antioxidant Capacity, Hepatic and Intestinal Health of Pearl Gentian Grouper (Epinephelus Fuscoguttatus ♀ × Epinephelus Lanceolatus ♂)

In this study, we present data from an eight-week growth trial with pearl gentian grouper fed either a reference diet (FM) with a fishmeal level of 50%, or test diet wherein 15% (CAP15), 30% (CAP30), 45% (CAP45), and 60% (CAP60) fishmeal was replaced by Clostridium autoethanogenum protein meal (CAP). Results showed that the weight gain and daily feed intake ratio of CAP60 were significantly lower than the FM group. In the serum, compared to the FM group, the content of malondialdehyde (MDA), the activities of alanine aminotransferase in CAP60 and CAP45 groups, and acid phosphatase in the CAP60 group were significantly higher, while the content of total cholesterol in CAP60 and CAP45 groups was significantly lower. In the liver, compared to the control group, the content of MDA in the CAP60 group was significantly higher. 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in CAP30 to CAP60 groups and farnesoid X receptor in CAP60 were significantly upregulated. In distal intestines, the activities of trypsin and superoxide dismutase of CAP30 to CAP60 groups were significantly lower than the FM group. In conclusion, for pearl gentian grouper, CAP could replace up to 45% of the fishmeal in the feed, while a 60% replacement level will affect cholesterol bile acid metabolism and health.

G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 reduced hepatic immune response and inhibited NFκB, PI3K/AKT, and PKC/P38 MAPK signaling pathway in hybrid grouper

The mammalian G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (TGR5) is involved in the inflammatory response. However, the functions of TGR5 in the immune response of fish remain unclear. In this study, the full-length sequence of tgr5 from hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × E. lanceolatus ♂) was cloned, and the function of TGR5 in the immune response was explored. The results showed that the ORF of tgr5 gene in hybrid grouper was 1029 bp and encoded 342 amino acids. Activation of TGR5 by INT-777 significantly decreased the activities and mRNA expression of TNFα and IL1β, whereas inhibition of TGR5 by SBI-115 showed the opposite effect. SBI-115 treatment significantly increased the expression of phosphorylated inhibitor κB α (p-IKBα) protein. After the INT-777 treatment, the concentration of protein kinase C (PKC) and expression of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38a), p38b and p38c, were significantly decreased in vivo. INT-777 agonist significantly decreased the expression of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (p-PI3K) protein and the ratio of phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated serine/threonine-protein kinase (p-AKT/AKT). In conclusion, activation of hepatic TGR5 inhibited the PKC/P38 MAPK, PI3K/AKT, NFκB signaling pathway and improved hepatic immune responses of hybrid grouper in vivo and in vitro.

Kuhuang alleviates liver fibrosis by modulating gut microbiota-mediated hepatic IFN signaling and bile acid synthesis

Background: Liver fibrosis is a common outcome of the pathological progression of chronic liver disease; however, no specific and effective therapeutic agent has been approved for its treatment. We investigated the effects of Kuhuang on liver fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms of action. Materials and methods: To induce hepatic fibrosis, either 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydro-collidine (DDC) diet was administered, or bile duct ligation (BDL) surgery was performed on C57BL/6 mice. Kuhuang was orally administered to mice for 7 days before and after bile duct ligation or 4 weeks with a DDC diet. Hematoxylin and eosin, Sirius red staining, and immunohistochemical analyses were performed to evaluate hepatic pathology. Hepatic interferon-β (IFN-β) levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RNA sequencing was performed to examine the gene expression profiles of liver tissues. The mRNA expression of inflammatory, profibrotic, and bile acid (BA)-related genes was further validated by qRT-PCR. A targeted metabolomics assay revealed the alteration of the hepatic bile acid (BA) composition. The composition of the gut microbiota was determined via 16S rRNA sequencing. Results: Treatment with Kuhuang attenuated liver fibrosis and reduced the inflammatory response in bile duct ligation and DDC mouse models. In addition, the hepatic IFN signaling pathway was activated following Kuhuang treatment. Kuhuang treatment also significantly decreased hepatic levels of both primary and secondary BAs. In addition, Kuhuang treatment altered gut microbiota composition, with an increased abundance of interferon-inducing Akkermansia and decreased abundance of bile salt hydrolase-producing Lactobacillus, Clostridium, and Bifidobacterium. Furthermore, the abundance of Akkermansia was positively correlated with the hepatic mRNA expression levels of Ifna4, Ifnb, and Isg15, whereas that of Lactobacillus, Clostridium _- sensu _- stricto _- 1, and Bifidobacterium was positively correlated with levels of bile acid synthesis-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggest that Kuhuang plays a protective role during the progression of liver fibrosis, potentially by altering the composition of the gut microbiota, which consequently activates interferon signaling and inhibits bile acid synthesis in the liver.

Farnesoid X receptor regulates PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, lipid metabolism, and immune response in hybrid grouper

Some diseases related to lipid metabolism increase yearly in cultured fish, and the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a nuclear protein that plays a key role in inflammatory responses and lipid metabolism. However, the roles of FXR in hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀ × E. lanceolatus♂) remain poorly understood. The main objective of this study was to explore the roles of hepatic FXR in triggering the immune response and the potential functions of FXR in regulating the lipid metabolism. In the present study, the full-length sequence of fxr from hybrid grouper was cloned and characterized for the first time. Upon the Vibrio parahaemolyticus stimulation, the transcriptional level of fxr was rapidly elevated in the head kidney tissue in the early stage of infection. In vivo and vitro, activation of FXR by obeticholic acid (OA) significantly increased the concentrations and mRNA levels of hepatic inflammatory cytokines. These effects were inversed when FXR was inhibited by guggulsterone (GU). Moreover, the activation of FXR to suppress the PI₃K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway improves hepatic lipid metabolism and reduces hepatic lipid accumulation in vivo and vitro. In addition, the inhibition of FXR activated the PI₃K/AKT/mTOR pathway, decreased the lipolysis and increased the lipogenesis, and subsequently increased the lipid accumulation in fish. These results revealed the positive roles of FXR in triggering immune responses and improving lipid metabolism and accumulation in hybrid grouper.

Dynamics impacts of oxytetracycline on growth performance, intestinal health and antibiotic residue of grouper in exposure and withdrawal treatment

Little is known about the effects of oxytetracycline (OTC) on marine fish. Using juvenile pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀ × E. lanceolatus♂), we investigated the effects of 56 days dietary oxytetracycline (OTC; OTCD) exposure (80 mg/kg body weight/day) on fish growth performance, intestinal health and antibiotic residue. Meanwhile, the alteration of intestinal health status and antibiotic residue after 7 (O7) or 14 days (O14) OTC withdrawal treatment were explored. We also assessed the potential human health risks based on target hazard quotient (THQ). The results showed that OTC exposure had no effects on growth rate parameters but caused liver and intestine atrophy. OTC exposure impaired the intestinal health by distorting intestinal morphological features, inducing oxidative stress, repressing immune function, triggering NF-κB-mediated inflammatory response and apoptosis, while 7 days OTC withdrawal treatment improved intestinal health status and 14 days OTC withdrawal treatment further improved it. In addition, the order of OTC residue in tested tissues after OTC exposure was: liver > kidney > spleen > muscle > intestine. OTC residue was significantly decreased in all tissues along with the increasing of withdrawal treatment period. Adults and children consuming the edible tissues (muscle) of OTC-treated or withdrawal-treated pearl gentian grouper would not experience any previous health risk as the THQ < 1 in all group.

Targeting gut microbial bile salt hydrolase (BSH) by diet supplements: new insights into dietary modulation of human health

Dietary supplements could modulate the abundance of BSH-producing bacteria to regulate the BSH enzyme activity, thereby change the BAs composition to regulate FXR signaling, which then regulate human health.