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Washington EJ, Zhou Y, Hsu AL, Petrovich M, Tenor JL, Toffaletti DL, Guan Z, Perfect JR, Borgnia MJ, Bartesaghi A, Brennan RG. Structures of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase, Tps1, from the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans: A target for antifungals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2314087121. [PMID: 39083421 PMCID: PMC11317593 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2314087121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Invasive fungal diseases are a major threat to human health, resulting in more than 1.5 million annual deaths worldwide. The arsenal of antifungal therapeutics remains limited and is in dire need of drugs that target additional biosynthetic pathways that are absent from humans. One such pathway involves the biosynthesis of trehalose. Trehalose is a disaccharide that is required for pathogenic fungi to survive in their human hosts. In the first step of trehalose biosynthesis, trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (Tps1) converts UDP-glucose and glucose-6-phosphate to trehalose-6-phosphate. Here, we report the structures of full-length Cryptococcus neoformans Tps1 (CnTps1) in unliganded form and in complex with uridine diphosphate and glucose-6-phosphate. Comparison of these two structures reveals significant movement toward the catalytic pocket by the N terminus upon ligand binding and identifies residues required for substrate binding, as well as residues that stabilize the tetramer. Intriguingly, an intrinsically disordered domain (IDD), which is conserved among Cryptococcal species and closely related basidiomycetes, extends from each subunit of the tetramer into the "solvent" but is not visible in density maps. We determined that the IDD is not required for C. neoformans Tps1-dependent thermotolerance and osmotic stress survival. Studies with UDP-galactose highlight the exquisite substrate specificity of CnTps1. In toto, these studies expand our knowledge of trehalose biosynthesis in Cryptococcus and highlight the potential of developing antifungal therapeutics that disrupt the synthesis of this disaccharide or the formation of a functional tetramer and the use of cryo-EM in the structural characterization of CnTps1-ligand/drug complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica J. Washington
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
| | - Ye Zhou
- Department of Computer Science, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
| | - Allen L. Hsu
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Health and Human Services, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC27709
| | - Matthew Petrovich
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Health and Human Services, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC27709
| | - Jennifer L. Tenor
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
| | - Dena L. Toffaletti
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
| | - Ziqiang Guan
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
| | - John R. Perfect
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
| | - Mario J. Borgnia
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Health and Human Services, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC27709
| | - Alberto Bartesaghi
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
- Department of Computer Science, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
| | - Richard G. Brennan
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC27710
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Washington EJ, Zhou Y, Hsu AL, Petrovich M, Tenor JL, Toffaletti DL, Guan Z, Perfect JR, Borgnia MJ, Bartesaghi A, Brennan RG. Structures of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase, Tps1, from the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans : a target for novel antifungals. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.03.14.530545. [PMID: 36993618 PMCID: PMC10054996 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.14.530545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Invasive fungal diseases are a major threat to human health, resulting in more than 1.5 million annual deaths worldwide. The arsenal of antifungal therapeutics remains limited and is in dire need of novel drugs that target additional biosynthetic pathways that are absent from humans. One such pathway involves the biosynthesis of trehalose. Trehalose is a disaccharide that is required for pathogenic fungi to survive in their human hosts. In the first step of trehalose biosynthesis, trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (Tps1) converts UDP-glucose and glucose-6-phosphate to trehalose-6-phosphate. Here, we report the structures of full-length Cryptococcus neoformans Tps1 (CnTps1) in unliganded form and in complex with uridine diphosphate and glucose-6-phosphate. Comparison of these two structures reveals significant movement towards the catalytic pocket by the N-terminus upon ligand binding and identifies residues required for substrate-binding, as well as residues that stabilize the tetramer. Intriguingly, an intrinsically disordered domain (IDD), which is conserved amongst Cryptococcal species and closely related Basidiomycetes, extends from each subunit of the tetramer into the "solvent" but is not visible in density maps. We determined that the IDD is not required for C. neoformans Tps1-dependent thermotolerance and osmotic stress survival. Studies with UDP-galactose highlight the exquisite substrate specificity of CnTps1. In toto , these studies expand our knowledge of trehalose biosynthesis in Cryptococcus and highlight the potential of developing antifungal therapeutics that disrupt the synthesis of this disaccharide or the formation of a functional tetramer and the use of cryo-EM in the structural characterization of CnTps1-ligand/drug complexes. Significance Statement Fungal infections are responsible for over a million deaths worldwide each year. Biosynthesis of a disaccharide, trehalose, is required for multiple pathogenic fungi to transition from the environment to the human host. Enzymes in the trehalose biosynthesis pathway are absent in humans and, therefore, are potentially significant targets for novel antifungal therapeutics. One enzyme in the trehalose biosynthesis is trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (Tps1). Here, we describe the cryo-electron microscopy structures of the CnTps1 homo-tetramer in the unliganded form and in complex with a substrate and a product. These structures and subsequent biochemical analysis reveal key details of substrate-binding residues and substrate specificity. These structures should facilitate structure-guided design of inhibitors against CnTps1.
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Chen Y, Tang L, Jiang Z, Wang S, Qi L, Tian X, Deng H, Kong Z, Gao W, Zhang X, Li S, Chen M, Zhang X, Duan H, Yang J, Peng YL, Wang D, Liu J. Dual-Specificity Inhibitor Targets Enzymes of the Trehalose Biosynthesis Pathway. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:209-218. [PMID: 38128269 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c06946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
To reduce the risk of resistance development, a novel fungicide with dual specificity is demanded. Trehalose is absent in animals, and its synthases, trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase (TPP), are safe fungicide targets. Here, we report the discovery of a dual-specificity inhibitor of MoTps1 (Magnaporthe oryzae Tps1, TPS) and MoTps2 (M. oryzae Tps2, TPP). The inhibitor, named A1-4, was obtained from a virtual screening and subsequent surface plasmon resonance screening. In in vitro assays, A1-4 interacts with MoTps1 and MoTps2-TPP (MoTps2 TPP domain) and inhibits their enzyme activities. In biological activity assays, A1-4 not only inhibits the virulence of M. oryzae on host but also causes aggregation of conidia cytosol, which is a characteristic phenotype of MoTps2. Furthermore, hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry assays support the notion that A1-4 binds to the substrate pockets of TPS and TPP. Collectively, A1-4 is a promising hit compound for the development of safe fungicide with dual-target specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitong Chen
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Liu Tang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhiyang Jiang
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shanshan Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Linlu Qi
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaolin Tian
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Haiteng Deng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhiwei Kong
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenqiang Gao
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaokang Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Saijie Li
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Meiqing Chen
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hongxia Duan
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - You-Liang Peng
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Dongli Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Junfeng Liu
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for Crop Pest Monitoring and Green Control, State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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Jiang Z, Shi D, Chen Y, Li H, Wang J, Lv X, Zi Y, Wang D, Xu Z, Huang J, Liu J, Duan H. Discovery of novel isopropanolamine inhibitors against MoTPS1 as potential fungicides with unique mechanisms. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 260:115755. [PMID: 37672934 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
The resistance and ecotoxicity of fungicides seriously restrict our ability to effectively control Magnaporthe oryzae. Discovering fungicidal agents based on novel targets, including MoTPS1, could efficiently address this situation. Here, we identified a hit VS-10 containing an isopropanolamine fragment as a novel MoTPS1 inhibitor through virtual screening, and forty-four analogs were synthesized by optimizing the structure of VS-10. Utilizing our newly established ion-pair chromatography (IPC) and leaf inoculation methods, we found that compared to VS-10, its analog j11 exhibited substantially greater inhibitory activity against both MoTPS1 and the pathogenicity of M. oryzae. Molecular simulations clarified that the electrostatic interactions between the bridging moiety of isopropanolamine and residue Glu396 of contributed significantly to the binding of j11 and MoTPS1. We preliminarily revealed the unique fungicidal mechanism of j11, which mainly impeded the infection of M. oryzae by decreasing sporulation, killing a small portion of conidia and interfering with the accumulation of turgor pressure in appressoria. Thus, in this study, a novel fungicide candidate with a unique mechanism targeting MoTPS1 was screened and discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyang Jiang
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Dongmei Shi
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yitong Chen
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Huilin Li
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jin'e Wang
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Xinrui Lv
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yunjiang Zi
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Dongli Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhijian Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Drug Discovery and Design Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Jiaxing Huang
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Junfeng Liu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
| | - Hongxia Duan
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Pest Chemical Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
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Najjari A, Boussetta A, Youssef N, Linares-Pastén JA, Mahjoubi M, Belloum R, Sghaier H, Cherif A, Ouzari HI. Physiological and genomic insights into abiotic stress of halophilic archaeon Natrinema altunense 4.1R isolated from a saline ecosystem of Tunisian desert. Genetica 2023; 151:133-152. [PMID: 36795306 PMCID: PMC9995536 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-023-00182-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Halophilic archaea are polyextremophiles with the ability to withstand fluctuations in salinity, high levels of ultraviolet radiation, and oxidative stress, allowing them to survive in a wide range of environments and making them an excellent model for astrobiological research. Natrinema altunense 4.1R is a halophilic archaeon isolated from the endorheic saline lake systems, Sebkhas, located in arid and semi-arid regions of Tunisia. It is an ecosystem characterized by periodic flooding from subsurface groundwater and fluctuating salinities. Here, we assess the physiological responses and genomic characterization of N. altunense 4.1R to UV-C radiation, as well as osmotic and oxidative stresses. Results showed that the 4.1R strain is able to survive up to 36% of salinity, up to 180 J/m2 to UV-C radiation, and at 50 mM of H2O2, a resistance profile similar to Halobacterium salinarum, a strain often used as UV-C resistant model. In order to understand the genetic determinants of N. altunense 4.1R survival strategy, we sequenced and analyzed its genome. Results showed multiple gene copies of osmotic stress, oxidative stress, and DNA repair response mechanisms supporting its survivability at extreme salinities and radiations. Indeed, the 3D molecular structures of seven proteins related to responses to UV-C radiation (excinucleases UvrA, UvrB, and UvrC, and photolyase), saline stress (trehalose-6-phosphate synthase OtsA and trehalose-phosphatase OtsB), and oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase SOD) were constructed by homology modeling. This study extends the abiotic stress range for the species N. altunense and adds to the repertoire of UV and oxidative stress resistance genes generally known from haloarchaeon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afef Najjari
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR03ES03 Laboratoire de Microbiologie et Biomolécules Actives, Université Tunis El Manar, 2092, Tunis, Tunisie
| | - Ayoub Boussetta
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR03ES03 Laboratoire de Microbiologie et Biomolécules Actives, Université Tunis El Manar, 2092, Tunis, Tunisie
| | - Noha Youssef
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Javier A Linares-Pastén
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Lunds Tekniska Högskola (LTH), Lund University, P. O. Box 124, 22100, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Mouna Mahjoubi
- University of Manouba, ISBST, LR11-ES31 BVBGR, Biotechpole Sidi Thabet, 2020, Ariana, Tunisia
| | - Rahma Belloum
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR03ES03 Laboratoire de Microbiologie et Biomolécules Actives, Université Tunis El Manar, 2092, Tunis, Tunisie
| | - Haitham Sghaier
- Laboratory "Energy and Matter for Development of Nuclear Sciences" (LR16CNSTN02), National Center for Nuclear Sciences and Technology (CNSTN), Ariana, Tunisia
| | - Ameur Cherif
- University of Manouba, ISBST, LR11-ES31 BVBGR, Biotechpole Sidi Thabet, 2020, Ariana, Tunisia
| | - Hadda Imene Ouzari
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR03ES03 Laboratoire de Microbiologie et Biomolécules Actives, Université Tunis El Manar, 2092, Tunis, Tunisie
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In Silico Inhibitability of Copper Carbenes and Silylenes against Rhizoctonia solani and Magnaporthe oryzae. J CHEM-NY 2021. [DOI: 10.1155/2021/5555521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper lighter tetrylenes are promising for inhibition towards Rhizoctonia solani-based protein PDB-4G9M and Magnaporthe oryzae-based PDB-6JBR in rice. Quantum properties of four hypothetic copper complexes of carbenes and silylenes (Cu-NHC1, Cu-NHC2, Cu-NHSi1, and Cu-NHSi2) were examined using the density functional theory. Their inhibitability towards the targeted proteins was evaluated using molecular docking simulation. Quantum analysis predicts the stability of the investigated complexes and thus their practical existability and practicable synthesisability. Their electronic configurations are justified as highly conducive to intermolecular interaction. Regarding ligand-protein as carbenes/silylenes-4G9M inhibitory structures, the stability is estimated in the order [Cu-NHC2]-4G9M (DS −12.9 kcal⋅mol−1) > [Cu-NHSi1]-4G9M (DS −11.8 kcal⋅mol−1) = [Cu-NHSi2]-4G9M (DS −11.7 kcal⋅mol−1) > [Cu-NHC1]-4G9M (DS –11.4 kcal⋅mol−1). In contrast, the corresponding order for the carbenes/silylenes-6JBR systems is [Cu-NHSi2]-6JBR (DS –13.4 kcal⋅mol−1) > [Cu-NHC2]-6JBR (DS −13.0 kcal⋅mol−1) = [Cu-NHSi1]-6JBR (DS −12.6 kcal⋅mol−1) > [Cu-NHC1]-6JBR (DS −12.3 kcal⋅mol−1). In theory, this study suggests a potentiality of copper lighter tetrylenes and their derivatives against the infection of fungi Rhizoctonia solani and Magnaporthe oryzae, thus encouraging attempts for experimental developments.
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Liebau J, Tersa M, Trastoy B, Patrick J, Rodrigo-Unzueta A, Corzana F, Sparrman T, Guerin ME, Mäler L. Unveiling the activation dynamics of a fold-switch bacterial glycosyltransferase by 19F NMR. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:9868-9878. [PMID: 32434931 PMCID: PMC7380196 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.014162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Fold-switch pathways remodel the secondary structure topology of proteins in response to the cellular environment. It is a major challenge to understand the dynamics of these folding processes. Here, we conducted an in-depth analysis of the α-helix–to–β-strand and β-strand–to–α-helix transitions and domain motions displayed by the essential mannosyltransferase PimA from mycobacteria. Using 19F NMR, we identified four functionally relevant states of PimA that coexist in dynamic equilibria on millisecond-to-second timescales in solution. We discovered that fold-switching is a slow process, on the order of seconds, whereas domain motions occur simultaneously but are substantially faster, on the order of milliseconds. Strikingly, the addition of substrate accelerated the fold-switching dynamics of PimA. We propose a model in which the fold-switching dynamics constitute a mechanism for PimA activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jobst Liebau
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Montse Tersa
- Structural Biology Unit, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Bizkaia Technology Park, Derio, Spain
| | - Beatriz Trastoy
- Structural Biology Unit, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Bizkaia Technology Park, Derio, Spain
| | - Joan Patrick
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ane Rodrigo-Unzueta
- Departamento de Bioquímica and Instituto Biofisika, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (CSIC, UPV/EHU), Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Francisco Corzana
- Departamento de Química, Centro de Investigación en Síntesis Química, Universidad de La Rioja, Logroño, Spain
| | | | - Marcelo E Guerin
- Structural Biology Unit, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Bizkaia Technology Park, Derio, Spain .,Departamento de Bioquímica and Instituto Biofisika, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (CSIC, UPV/EHU), Bizkaia, Spain.,IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Lena Mäler
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden .,Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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