Dimer-dimer stacking interactions are important for nucleic acid binding by the archaeal chromatin protein Alba

Evolution of sequence, structural and functional diversity of the ubiquitous DNA/RNA-binding Alba domain

The DNA/RNA-binding Alba domain is prevalent across all kingdoms of life. First discovered in archaea, this protein domain has evolved from RNA- to DNA-binding, with a concomitant expansion in the range of cellular processes that it regulates. Despite its widespread presence, the full extent of its sequence, structural, and functional diversity remains unexplored. In this study, we employed iterative searches in PSI-BLAST to identify 15,161 unique Alba domain-containing proteins from the NCBI non-redundant protein database. Sequence similarity network (SSN) analysis clustered them into 13 distinct subgroups, including the archaeal Alba and eukaryotic Rpp20/Pop7 and Rpp25/Pop6 groups, as well as novel fungal and Plasmodium-specific Albas. Sequence and structural conservation analysis of the subgroups indicated high preservation of the dimer interface, with Alba domains from unicellular eukaryotes notably exhibiting structural deviations towards their C-terminal end. Finally, phylogenetic analysis, while supporting SSN clustering, revealed the evolutionary branchpoint at which the eukaryotic Rpp20- and Rpp25-like clades emerged from archaeal Albas, and the subsequent taxonomic lineage-based divergence within each clade. Taken together, this comprehensive analysis enhances our understanding of the evolutionary history of Alba domain-containing proteins across diverse organisms.

Dual dimeric interactions in the nucleic acid-binding protein Sac10b lead to multiple bridging of double-stranded DNA

Nucleoid-associated proteins play a crucial role in the compaction and regulation of genetic material across organisms. The Sac10b family, also known as Alba, comprises widely distributed and highly conserved nucleoid-associated proteins found in archaea. Sac10b is identified as the first 10 kDa DNA-binding protein in the thermoacidophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Here, we present the crystal structures of two homologous proteins, Sac10b1 and Sac10b2, as well as the Sac10b1 mutant F59A, determined at a resolution of 1.4-2.0 Å. Electron microscopic images reveal the DNA-bridging capabilities of both Sac10b1 and Sac10b2, albeit to varying extents. Analyses of crystal packing and electron microscopic results suggest that Sac10b1 facilitates cooperative DNA binding, forming extensive bridged filaments via the conserved R58 and F59 residues at the dimer-dimer interface. Substitutions at R58 or F59 of Sac10b1 attenuate end-to-end association, resulting in non-cooperative DNA binding, and formation of small, bridged DNA segments in a way similar to Sac10b2. Analytical ultracentrifuge and circular dichroism confirm the presence of thermostable, acid-tolerant dimers in both Sac10b1 and Sac10b2. These findings attest to the functional role of Sac10b in organizing and stabilizing chromosomal DNA through distinct bridging interactions, particularly under extreme growth conditions.

Nuclease activity of Plasmodium falciparum Alba family protein PfAlba3

Plasmodium falciparum Alba domain-containing protein Alba3 (PfAlba3) is ubiquitously expressed in intra-erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum, but the function of this protein is not yet established. Here, we report an apurinic/apyrimidinic site-driven intrinsic nuclease activity of PfAlba3 assisted by divalent metal ions. Surface plasmon resonance and atomic force microscopy confirm sequence non-specific DNA binding by PfAlba3. Upon binding, PfAlba3 cleaves double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) hydrolytically. Mutational studies coupled with mass spectrometric analysis indicate that K23 is the essential residue in modulating the binding to DNA through acetylation-deacetylation. We further demonstrate that PfSir2a interacts and deacetylates K23-acetylated PfAlba3 in favoring DNA binding. Hence, K23 serves as a putative molecular switch regulating the nuclease activity of PfAlba3. Thus, the nuclease activity of PfAlba3, along with its apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) endonuclease feature identified in this study, indicates a role of PfAlba3 in DNA-damage response that may have a far-reaching consequence in Plasmodium pathogenicity.

How DNA affects the hyperthermophilic protein Ape10b2 for oligomerization: an investigation using multiple short molecular dynamics simulations

Alba2 is a hyperthermophilic DNA-binding protein, and DNA plays a crucial role in the Alba2 oligomerization process. It is a pity that there is limited research in terms of how DNA affects the conformational change of Alba2 in oligomerization. Herein, we complement the crystal structure of the Ape10b2 (belongs to Alba2)-dsDNA complex (PDB ID: 3U6Y) and employ multiple short molecular dynamics (MSMD) simulations to illuminate the influence of DNA on Ape10b2 at four temperatures (300, 343, 363, and 373 K). Our results indicate that DNA could cause the conformational changes of two important regions (loop1 and loop5), which may be beneficial for protein oligomerization. The results of hydrogen bond analysis show that the increasing number of hydrogen bonds between two monomers of Ape10b2 may also be a favorable factor for oligomerization. In addition, Ape10b2 can stabilize DNA by electrostatic interactions with an increase in temperature, and five residues (Arg40, Arg42, Asn43, Asn45, and Arg46) play a stabilizing role during protein binding to DNA. Our findings could help in understanding the favorable factors leading to protein oligomerization, which contributes to enzyme engineering research from an industrial perspective.

Genome-wide identification and expression profiling of Alba gene family members in response to abiotic stress in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

BACKGROUND

Alba (Acetylation lowers binding affinity) proteins are an ancient family of nucleic acid-binding proteins that function in gene regulation, RNA metabolism, mRNA translatability, developmental processes, and stress adaptation. However, comprehensive bioinformatics analysis on the Alba gene family of Solanum lycopersicum has not been reported previously.

RESULTS

In the present study, we undertook the first comprehensive genome-wide characterization of the Alba gene family in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). We identified eight tomato Alba genes, which were classified into two groups: genes containing a single Alba domain and genes with a generic Alba domain and RGG/RG repeat motifs. Cis-regulatory elements and target sites for miRNAs, which function in plant development and stress responses, were prevalent in SlAlba genes. To explore the structure-function relationships of tomato Alba proteins, we predicted their 3D structures, highlighting their likely interactions with several putative ligands. Confocal microscopy revealed that SlAlba-GFP fusion proteins were localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm, consistent with putative roles in various signalling cascades. Expression profiling revealed the differential expression patterns of most SlAlba genes across diverse organs. SlAlba1 and SlAlba2 were predominantly expressed in flowers, whereas SlAlba5 expression peaked in 1 cm-diameter fruits. The SlAlba genes were differentially expressed (up- or downregulated) in response to different abiotic stresses. All but one of these genes were induced by abscisic acid treatment, pointing to their possible regulatory roles in stress tolerance via an abscisic acid-dependent pathway. Furthermore, co-expression of SlAlba genes with multiple genes related to several metabolic pathways spotlighted their crucial roles in various biological processes and signalling.

CONCLUSIONS

Our characterization of SlAlba genes should facilitate the discovery of additional genes associated with organ and fruit development as well as abiotic stress adaptation in tomato.

Archaea: The Final Frontier of Chromatin

The three domains of life employ various strategies to organize their genomes. Archaea utilize features similar to those found in both eukaryotic and bacterial chromatin to organize their DNA. In this review, we discuss the current state of research regarding the structure-function relationships of several archaeal chromatin proteins (histones, Alba, Cren7, and Sul7d). We address individual structures as well as inferred models for higher-order chromatin formation. Each protein introduces a unique phenotype to chromatin organization, and these structures are put into the context of in vivo and in vitro data. We close by discussing the present gaps in knowledge that are preventing further studies of the organization of archaeal chromatin, on both the organismal and domain level.

The Sac10b homolog from Sulfolobus islandicus is an RNA chaperone

Nucleic acid-binding proteins of the Sac10b family, also known as Alba, are widely distributed in Archaea. However, the physiological roles of these proteins have yet to be clarified. Here, we show that Sis10b, a member of the Sac10b family from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus, was active in RNA strand exchange, duplex RNA unwinding in vitro and RNA unfolding in a heterologous host cell. This protein exhibited temperature-dependent binding preference for ssRNA over dsRNA and was more efficient in RNA unwinding and RNA unfolding at elevated temperatures. Notably, alanine substitution of a highly conserved basic residue (K) at position 17 in Sis10b drastically reduced the ability of this protein to catalyse RNA strand exchange and RNA unwinding. Additionally, the preferential binding of Sis10b to ssRNA also depended on the presence of K17 or R17. Furthermore, normal growth was restored to a slow-growing Sis10b knockdown mutant by overproducing wild-type Sis10b but not by overproducing K17A in this mutant strain. Our results indicate that Sis10b is an RNA chaperone that likely functions most efficiently at temperatures optimal for the growth of S. islandicus, and K17 is essential for the chaperone activity of the protein.

Structure and function of archaeal histones

The genomes of all organisms throughout the tree of life are compacted and organized in chromatin by association of chromatin proteins. Eukaryotic genomes encode histones, which are assembled on the genome into octamers, yielding nucleosomes. Post-translational modifications of the histones, which occur mostly on their N-terminal tails, define the functional state of chromatin. Like eukaryotes, most archaeal genomes encode histones, which are believed to be involved in the compaction and organization of their genomes. Instead of discrete multimers, in vivo data suggest assembly of “nucleosomes” of variable size, consisting of multiples of dimers, which are able to induce repression of transcription. Based on these data and a model derived from X-ray crystallography, it was recently proposed that archaeal histones assemble on DNA into “endless” hypernucleosomes. In this review, we discuss the amino acid determinants of hypernucleosome formation and highlight differences with the canonical eukaryotic octamer. We identify archaeal histones differing from the consensus, which are expected to be unable to assemble into hypernucleosomes. Finally, we identify atypical archaeal histones with short N- or C-terminal extensions and C-terminal tails similar to the tails of eukaryotic histones, which are subject to post-translational modification. Based on the expected characteristics of these archaeal histones, we discuss possibilities of involvement of histones in archaeal transcription regulation.

Both Archaea and eukaryotes express histones, but whereas the tertiary structure of histones is conserved, the quaternary structure of histone–DNA complexes is very different. In a recent study, the crystal structure of the archaeal hypernucleosome was revealed to be an “endless” core of interacting histones that wraps the DNA around it in a left-handed manner. The ability to form a hypernucleosome is likely determined by dimer–dimer interactions as well as stacking interactions between individual layers of the hypernucleosome. We analyzed a wide variety of archaeal histones and found that most but not all histones possess residues able to facilitate hypernucleosome formation. Among these are histones with truncated termini or extended histone tails. Based on our analysis, we propose several possibilities of archaeal histone involvement in transcription regulation.

Backbone and side-chain 1H, 15N and 13C resonance assignments of two Sac10b family members Mvo10b and Mth10bTQQA from archaea

The Sac10b family proteins, also named as Alba, are small, basic, nucleic acid-binding proteins widely distributed in archaea. They possess divergent physiological functions such as binding to both DNA and RNA with a high affinity and involving in genomic DNA compaction, RNA transactions and transcriptional regulations. The structures of many Sac10b family proteins from hyperthermophilic archaea have been reported, while those from thermophilic and mesophilic archaea are largely unknown. As was pointed out, the homologous members from thermophilic and mesophilic archaea may have functions different from the hyperthermophilic members. Therefore, comparison of these homologous members can provide biophysical and structural insight into the functional diversity and thermal adaptation mechanism. The present work mainly focused on the NMR study of two Sac10b family members, Mvo10b and Mth10b, from the mesophilic and thermophilic archaea, respectively. To overcome the difficulties caused by the oligomerization and conformation heterogeneity of Mth10b, a M13T/L17Q/I20Q/P56A mutant Mth10b (Mth10bTQQA) was constructed and used together with Mvo10b for multi-dimensional NMR experiments. The resonance assignments of Mvo10b and Mth10bTQQA are reported for further structural determination which is a basis for understanding the functional diversity and their thermal adaption mechanisms.

Transcription Regulation in Archaea

The known diversity of metabolic strategies and physiological adaptations of archaeal species to extreme environments is extraordinary. Accurate and responsive mechanisms to ensure that gene expression patterns match the needs of the cell necessitate regulatory strategies that control the activities and output of the archaeal transcription apparatus. Archaea are reliant on a single RNA polymerase for all transcription, and many of the known regulatory mechanisms employed for archaeal transcription mimic strategies also employed for eukaryotic and bacterial species. Novel mechanisms of transcription regulation have become apparent by increasingly sophisticated in vivo and in vitro investigations of archaeal species. This review emphasizes recent progress in understanding archaeal transcription regulatory mechanisms and highlights insights gained from studies of the influence of archaeal chromatin on transcription.

The Alba protein family: Structure and function

Alba family proteins are small, basic, dimeric nucleic acid-binding proteins, which are widely distributed in archaea and a number of eukaryotes. This family of proteins bears the distinct features of regulation through acetylation/deacetylation, hence named as acetylation lowers binding affinity (Alba). Alba family proteins bind DNA cooperatively with no apparent sequence specificity. Besides DNA, Alba proteins also interact with diverse RNA species and associate with ribonucleo-protein complexes. Initially, Alba proteins were recognized as chromosomal proteins and supposed to be involved in the maintenance of chromatin architecture and transcription repression. However, recent studies have shown increasing evidence of functional plasticity among Alba family of proteins that widely range from genome packaging and organization, transcriptional and translational regulation, RNA metabolism, and development and differentiation processes. In recent years, Alba family proteins have attracted growing interest due to their widespread occurrence in large number of organisms. Presence in multiple copies, functional crosstalk, differential binding affinity, and posttranslational modifications are some of the key factors that might regulate the biological functions of Alba family proteins. In this review article, we present an overview of the Alba family proteins, their salient features and emphasize their functional role in different organisms reported so far.

The PfAlba1 RNA-binding protein is an important regulator of translational timing in Plasmodium falciparum blood stages

Background

Transcriptome-wide ribosome occupancy studies have suggested that during the intra-erythrocytic lifecycle of Plasmodium falciparum, select mRNAs are post-transcriptionally regulated. A subset of these encodes parasite virulence factors required for invading host erythrocytes, and are currently being developed as vaccine candidates. However, the molecular mechanisms that govern post-transcriptional regulation are currently unknown.

Results

We explore the previously identified DNA/RNA-binding protein PfAlba1, which localizes to multiple foci in the cytoplasm of P. falciparum trophozoites. We establish that PfAlba1 is essential for asexual proliferation, and subsequently investigate parasites overexpressing epitope-tagged PfAlba1 to identify its RNA targets and effects on mRNA homeostasis and translational regulation. Using deep sequencing of affinity-purified PfAlba1-associated RNAs, we identify 1193 transcripts that directly bind to PfAlba1 in trophozoites. For 105 such transcripts, 43 % of which are uncharacterized and 13 % of which encode erythrocyte invasion components, the steady state levels significantly change at this stage, evidencing a role for PfAlba1 in maintaining mRNA homeostasis. Additionally, we discover that binding of PfAlba1 to four erythrocyte invasion mRNAs, Rap1, RhopH3, CDPK1, and AMA1, is linked to translation repression in trophozoites whereas release of these mRNAs from a PfAlba1 complex in mature stages correlates with protein synthesis.

Conclusions

We show that PfAlba1 binds to a sub-population of asexual stage mRNAs and fine-tunes the timing of translation. This mode of post-transcriptional regulation may be especially important for P. falciparum erythrocyte invasion components that have to be assembled into apical secretory organelles in a highly time-dependent manner towards the end of the parasite’s asexual lifecycle.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0771-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chromatin structure and dynamics in hot environments: architectural proteins and DNA topoisomerases of thermophilic archaea

In all organisms of the three living domains (Bacteria, Archaea, Eucarya) chromosome-associated proteins play a key role in genome functional organization. They not only compact and shape the genome structure, but also regulate its dynamics, which is essential to allow complex genome functions. Elucidation of chromatin composition and regulation is a critical issue in biology, because of the intimate connection of chromatin with all the essential information processes (transcription, replication, recombination, and repair). Chromatin proteins include architectural proteins and DNA topoisomerases, which regulate genome structure and remodelling at two hierarchical levels. This review is focussed on architectural proteins and topoisomerases from hyperthermophilic Archaea. In these organisms, which live at high environmental temperature (>80 °C <113 °C), chromatin proteins and modulation of the DNA secondary structure are concerned with the problem of DNA stabilization against heat denaturation while maintaining its metabolic activity.

Biochemical and structural insights into RNA binding by Ssh10b, a member of the highly conserved Sac10b protein family in Archaea

Proteins of the Sac10b family are highly conserved in Archaea. Ssh10b, a member of the Sac10b family from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Sulfolobus shibatae, binds to RNA in vivo. Here we show that binding by Ssh10b destabilizes RNA secondary structure. Structural analysis of Ssh10b in complex with a 25-bp RNA duplex containing local distortions reveals that Ssh10b binds the two RNA strands symmetrically as a tetramer with each dimer bound asymmetrically to a single RNA strand. Amino acid residues involved in double-stranded RNA binding are similar, but non-identical, to those in dsDNA binding. The dimer-dimer interaction mediated by the intermolecular β-sheet appears to facilitate the destabilization of base pairing in the secondary structure of RNA. Our results suggest that proteins of the Sac10b family may play important roles in RNA transactions requiring destabilization of RNA secondary structure in Sulfolobus.

Structure and dynamics of the crenarchaeal nucleoid

Crenarchaeal genomes are organized into a compact nucleoid by a set of small chromatin proteins. Although there is little knowledge of chromatin structure in Archaea, similarities between crenarchaeal and bacterial chromatin proteins suggest that organization and regulation could be achieved by similar mechanisms. In the present review, we describe the molecular properties of crenarchaeal chromatin proteins and discuss the possible role of these architectural proteins in organizing the crenarchaeal chromatin and in gene regulation.

Alba shapes the archaeal genome using a delicate balance of bridging and stiffening the DNA

Architectural proteins have an important role in shaping the genome and act as global regulators of gene expression. How these proteins jointly modulate genome plasticity is largely unknown. In archaea, one of the most abundant proteins, Alba, is considered to have a key role in organizing the genome. Here we characterize the multimodal architectural properties and interplay of the Alba1 and Alba2 proteins using single-molecule imaging and manipulation techniques. We demonstrate that the two paralogues can bridge and rigidify DNA and that the interplay between the two proteins influences the balance between these effects. Our data yield a structural model that explains the multimodal behaviour of Alba proteins and its impact on genome folding.

How the genome is physically organized is less understood in archaea than in eubacteria or eukaryotes. Laurens et al. measure DNA binding by the Sulfolobus solfataricus proteins Alba1 and Alba2 using single-molecule techniques and conclude that the presence of Alba2 leads to more bridging between DNA.

Interactions of archaeal chromatin proteins Alba1 and Alba2 with nucleic acids

BACKGROUND

Architectural proteins have important roles in compacting and organising chromosomal DNA. There are two potential histone counterpart peptide sequences (Alba1 and Alba2) in the Aeropyrum pernix genome (APE1832.1 and APE1823).

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

THESE TWO PEPTIDES WERE EXPRESSED AND THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH VARIOUS DNAS WERE STUDIED USING A COMBINATION OF VARIOUS EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES: surface plasmon resonance, UV spectrophotometry, circular dichroism-spectropolarimetry, gel-shift assays, and isothermal titration calorimetry.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our data indicate that there are significant differences in the properties of the Alba1 and Alba2 proteins. Both of these Alba proteins can thermally stabilise DNA polynucleotides, as seen from UV melting curves. Alba2 and equimolar mixtures of Alba1/Alba2 have greater effects on the thermal stability of poly(dA-dT).poly(dA-dT). Surface plasmon resonance sensorgrams for binding of Alba1, Alba2, and equimolar mixtures of Alba1/Alba2 to DNA oligonucleotides show different binding patterns. Circular dichroism indicates that Alba2 has a less-ordered secondary structure than Alba1. The secondary structures of the Alba proteins are not significantly influenced by DNA binding, even at high temperatures. Based on these data, we conclude that Alba1, Alba2, and equimolar mixtures of Alba1/Alba2 show different properties in their binding to various DNAs.

Molecular mechanism underlying the interaction of typical Sac10b family proteins with DNA

The Sac10b protein family is regarded as a family of DNA-binding proteins that is highly conserved and widely distributed within the archaea. Sac10b family members are typically small basic dimeric proteins that bind to DNA with cooperativity and no sequence specificity and are capable of constraining DNA negative supercoils, protecting DNA from Dnase I digestion, and do not compact DNA obviously. However, a detailed understanding of the structural basis of the interaction of Sac10b family proteins with DNA is still lacking. Here, we determined the crystal structure of Mth10b, an atypical member of the Sac10b family from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum ΔH, at 2.2 Å. Unlike typical Sac10b family proteins, Mth10b is an acidic protein and binds to neither DNA nor RNA. The overall structure of Mth10b displays high similarity to its homologs, but three pairs of conserved positively charged residues located at the presumed DNA-binding surface are substituted by non-charged residues in Mth10b. Through amino acids interchanges, the DNA-binding ability of Mth10b was restored successfully, whereas the DNA-binding ability of Sso10b, a typical Sac10b family member, was weakened greatly. Based on these results, we propose a model describing the molecular mechanism underlying the interactions of typical Sac10b family proteins with DNA that explains all the characteristics of the interactions between typical Sac10b family members and DNA.

Crystal structure of archaeal chromatin protein Alba2-double-stranded DNA complex from Aeropyrum pernix K1

All thermophilic and hyperthermophilic archaea encode homologs of dimeric Alba (Sac10b) proteins that bind cooperatively at high density to DNA. Here, we report the 2.0 Å resolution crystal structure of an Alba2 (Ape10b2)-dsDNA complex from Aeropyrum pernix K1. A rectangular tube-like structure encompassing duplex DNA reveals the positively charged residues in the monomer-monomer interface of each dimer packing on either side of the bound dsDNA in successive minor grooves. The extended hairpin loop connecting strands β3 and β4 undergoes significant conformational changes upon DNA binding to accommodate the other Alba2 dimer during oligomerization. Mutational analysis of key interacting residues confirmed the specificity of Alba2-dsDNA interactions.

PfAlbas constitute a new eukaryotic DNA/RNA-binding protein family in malaria parasites

In Plasmodium falciparum, perinuclear subtelomeric chromatin conveys monoallelic expression of virulence genes. However, proteins that directly bind to chromosome ends are poorly described. Here we identify a novel DNA/RNA-binding protein family that bears homology to the archaeal protein Alba (Acetylation lowers binding affinity). We isolated three of the four PfAlba paralogs as part of a molecular complex that is associated with the P. falciparum-specific TARE6 (Telomere-Associated Repetitive Elements 6) subtelomeric region and showed in electromobility shift assays (EMSAs) that the PfAlbas bind to TARE6 repeats. In early blood stages, the PfAlba proteins were enriched at the nuclear periphery and partially co-localized with PfSir2, a TARE6-associated histone deacetylase linked to the process of antigenic variation. The nuclear location changed at the onset of parasite proliferation (trophozoite-schizont), where the PfAlba proteins were also detectable in the cytoplasm in a punctate pattern. Using single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) probes in EMSAs, we found that PfAlbas bind to ssRNA, albeit with different binding preferences. We demonstrate for the first time in eukaryotes that Alba-like proteins bind to both DNA and RNA and that their intracellular location is developmentally regulated. Discovery of the PfAlbas may provide a link between the previously described subtelomeric non-coding RNA and the regulation of antigenic variation.

Mth10b, a unique member of the Sac10b family, does not bind nucleic acid

The Sac10b protein family is regarded as a group of nucleic acid-binding proteins that are highly conserved and widely distributed within archaea. All reported members of this family are basic proteins that exist as homodimers in solution and bind to DNA and/or RNA without apparent sequence specificity in vitro. Here, we reported a unique member of the family, Mth10b from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum ΔH, whose amino acid sequence shares high homology with other Sac10b family proteins. However, unlike those proteins, Mth10b is an acidic protein; its potential isoelectric point is only 4.56, which is inconsistent with the characteristics of a nucleic acid-binding protein. In this study, Mth10b was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified using a three-column chromatography purification procedure. Biochemical characterization indicated that Mth10b should be similar to typical Sac10b family proteins with respect to its secondary and tertiary structure and in its preferred oligomeric forms. However, an electrophoretic mobility shift analysis (EMSA) showed that neither DNA nor RNA bound to Mth10b in vitro, indicating that either Mth10b likely has a physiological function that is distinct from those of other Sac10b family members or nucleic acid-binding ability may not be a fundamental factor to the actual function of the Sac10b family.

Nucleoid-associated proteins in Crenarchaea

Architectural proteins play an important role in compacting and organizing the chromosomal DNA in all three kingdoms of life (Eukarya, Bacteria and Archaea). These proteins are generally not conserved at the amino acid sequence level, but the mechanisms by which they modulate the genome do seem to be functionally conserved across kingdoms. On a generic level, architectural proteins can be classified based on their structural effect as DNA benders, DNA bridgers or DNA wrappers. Although chromatin organization in archaea has not been studied extensively, quite a number of architectural proteins have been identified. In the present paper, we summarize the knowledge currently available on these proteins in Crenarchaea. By the type of architectural proteins available, the crenarchaeal nucleoid shows similarities with that of Bacteria. It relies on the action of a large set of small, abundant and generally basic proteins to compact and organize their genome and to modulate its activity.