1
|
Hammam E, Ananda G, Sinha A, Scheidig-Benatar C, Bohec M, Preiser PR, Dedon PC, Scherf A, Vembar SS. Discovery of a new predominant cytosine DNA modification that is linked to gene expression in malaria parasites. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:184-199. [PMID: 31777939 PMCID: PMC6943133 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz1093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA cytosine modifications are key epigenetic regulators of cellular processes in mammalian cells, with their misregulation leading to varied disease states. In the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, a unicellular eukaryotic pathogen, little is known about the predominant cytosine modifications, cytosine methylation (5mC) and hydroxymethylation (5hmC). Here, we report the first identification of a hydroxymethylcytosine-like (5hmC-like) modification in P. falciparum asexual blood stages using a suite of biochemical methods. In contrast to mammalian cells, we report 5hmC-like levels in the P. falciparum genome of 0.2–0.4%, which are significantly higher than the methylated cytosine (mC) levels of 0.01–0.05%. Immunoprecipitation of hydroxymethylated DNA followed by next generation sequencing (hmeDIP-seq) revealed that 5hmC-like modifications are enriched in gene bodies with minimal dynamic changes during asexual development. Moreover, levels of the 5hmC-like base in gene bodies positively correlated to transcript levels, with more than 2000 genes stably marked with this modification throughout asexual development. Our work highlights the existence of a new predominant cytosine DNA modification pathway in P. falciparum and opens up exciting avenues for gene regulation research and the development of antimalarials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elie Hammam
- Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.,CNRS ERL9195, 75015 Paris, France.,INSERM U1201, 75015 Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Ecole doctorale Complexité du Vivant ED515, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Guruprasad Ananda
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT 06032, USA
| | - Ameya Sinha
- Antimicrobial Resistance Interdisciplinary Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore 138602, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Christine Scheidig-Benatar
- Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.,CNRS ERL9195, 75015 Paris, France.,INSERM U1201, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Mylene Bohec
- Institut Curie Genomics of Excellence (ICGex) Platform, Institut Curie Research Center, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Peter R Preiser
- Antimicrobial Resistance Interdisciplinary Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore 138602, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Peter C Dedon
- Antimicrobial Resistance Interdisciplinary Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore 138602, Singapore.,Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Artur Scherf
- Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.,CNRS ERL9195, 75015 Paris, France.,INSERM U1201, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Shruthi S Vembar
- Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.,CNRS ERL9195, 75015 Paris, France.,INSERM U1201, 75015 Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shurtleff MJ, Itzhak DN, Hussmann JA, Schirle Oakdale NT, Costa EA, Jonikas M, Weibezahn J, Popova KD, Jan CH, Sinitcyn P, Vembar SS, Hernandez H, Cox J, Burlingame AL, Brodsky JL, Frost A, Borner GH, Weissman JS. The ER membrane protein complex interacts cotranslationally to enable biogenesis of multipass membrane proteins. eLife 2018; 7:37018. [PMID: 29809151 PMCID: PMC5995541 DOI: 10.7554/elife.37018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) supports biosynthesis of proteins with diverse transmembrane domain (TMD) lengths and hydrophobicity. Features in transmembrane domains such as charged residues in ion channels are often functionally important, but could pose a challenge during cotranslational membrane insertion and folding. Our systematic proteomic approaches in both yeast and human cells revealed that the ER membrane protein complex (EMC) binds to and promotes the biogenesis of a range of multipass transmembrane proteins, with a particular enrichment for transporters. Proximity-specific ribosome profiling demonstrates that the EMC engages clients cotranslationally and immediately following clusters of TMDs enriched for charged residues. The EMC can remain associated after completion of translation, which both protects clients from premature degradation and allows recruitment of substrate-specific and general chaperones. Thus, the EMC broadly enables the biogenesis of multipass transmembrane proteins containing destabilizing features, thereby mitigating the trade-off between function and stability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Shurtleff
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Daniel N Itzhak
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jeffrey A Hussmann
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Nicole T Schirle Oakdale
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Elizabeth A Costa
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Martin Jonikas
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jimena Weibezahn
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Katerina D Popova
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Calvin H Jan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Pavel Sinitcyn
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Shruthi S Vembar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Hilda Hernandez
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jürgen Cox
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Alma L Burlingame
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jeffrey L Brodsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Adam Frost
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, United States
| | - Georg Hh Borner
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cubi R, Vembar SS, Biton A, Franetich J, Bordessoulles M, Sossau D, Zanghi G, Bosson‐Vanga H, Benard M, Moreno A, Dereuddre‐Bosquet N, Le Grand R, Scherf A, Mazier D. Laser capture microdissection enables transcriptomic analysis of dividing and quiescent liver stages of Plasmodium relapsing species. Cell Microbiol 2017; 19:e12735. [PMID: 28256794 PMCID: PMC5516136 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Dormant liver stage forms (hypnozoites) of the malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax present major hurdles to control and eradicate infection. Despite major research efforts, the molecular composition of hypnozoites remains ill defined. Here, we applied a combination of state-of-the-art technologies to generate the first transcriptome of hypnozoites. We developed a robust laser dissection microscopy protocol to isolate individual Plasmodium cynomolgi hypnozoites and schizonts from infected monkey hepatocytes and optimized RNA-seq analysis to obtain the first transcriptomes of these stages. Comparative transcriptomic analysis identified 120 transcripts as being differentially expressed in the hypnozoite stage relative to the dividing liver schizont, with 69 and 51 mRNAs being up- or down-regulated, respectively, in the hypnozoites. This lead to the identification of potential markers of commitment to and maintenance of the dormant state of the hypnozoite including three transcriptional regulators of the ApiAP2 family, one of which is unique to P. cynomolgi and P. vivax, and the global translational repressor, eIF2a kinase eIK2, all of which are upregulated in the hypnozoite. Together, this work not only provides a primary experimentally-derived list of molecular markers of hypnozoites but also identifies transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression as potentially being key to establishing and maintaining quiescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roger Cubi
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
| | - Shruthi S. Vembar
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte‐Parasite—Institut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS ERL 9195ParisFrance
- INSERM U1201ParisFrance
| | - Anne Biton
- Centre de BioinformatiqueBiostatistique et Biologie Intégrative (C3BI, USR 3756 Institut Pasteur et CNRS)ParisFrance
| | - Jean‐Francois Franetich
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
| | - Mallaury Bordessoulles
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
| | - Daniel Sossau
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
- Department of DermatologyEberhard Karls UniversityTübingenGermany
| | - Gigliola Zanghi
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
| | - Henriette Bosson‐Vanga
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
| | | | - Alicia Moreno
- AP‐HP, Hôpital St. AntoineService de Parasitologie‐Mycologie75012ParisFrance
| | - Nathalie Dereuddre‐Bosquet
- Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune DiseasesCEA—Université Paris Sud 1—INSERM U1184Fontenay‐aux‐RosesFrance
| | - Roger Le Grand
- Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune DiseasesCEA—Université Paris Sud 1—INSERM U1184Fontenay‐aux‐RosesFrance
| | - Artur Scherf
- Unité Biologie des Interactions Hôte‐Parasite—Institut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS ERL 9195ParisFrance
- INSERM U1201ParisFrance
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CNRS ERL8255, INSERM U1135Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06ParisFrance
- AP‐HP, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié‐Salpêtrière, Service Parasitologie‐MycologieParisFrance
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Vembar SS, Scherf A, Siegel TN. Noncoding RNAs as emerging regulators of Plasmodium falciparum virulence gene expression. Curr Opin Microbiol 2014; 20:153-61. [PMID: 25022240 PMCID: PMC4157322 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2014.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 06/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The eukaryotic unicellular pathogen Plasmodium falciparum tightly regulates gene expression, both during development and in adaptation to dynamic host environments. This regulation is evident in the mutually exclusive expression of members of clonally variant virulence multigene families. While epigenetic regulators have been selectively identified at active or repressed virulence genes, their specific recruitment remains a mystery. In recent years, noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as lynchpins of eukaryotic gene regulation; by binding to epigenetic regulators, they provide target specificity to otherwise non-specific enzyme complexes. Not surprisingly, there is great interest in understanding the role of ncRNA in P. falciparum, in particular, their contribution to the mutually exclusive expression of virulence genes. The current repertoire of P. falciparum ncRNAs includes, but is not limited to, subtelomeric ncRNAs, virulence gene-associated ncRNAs and natural antisense RNA transcripts. Continued improvement in high-throughput sequencing methods is sure to expand this repertoire. Here, we summarize recent advances in P. falciparum ncRNA biology, with an emphasis on ncRNA-mediated epigenetic modes of gene regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi S Vembar
- Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; CNRS URA2581, Paris, France
| | - Artur Scherf
- Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; CNRS URA2581, Paris, France
| | - T Nicolai Siegel
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/Bau D15, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chêne A, Vembar SS, Rivière L, Lopez-Rubio JJ, Claes A, Siegel TN, Sakamoto H, Scheidig-Benatar C, Hernandez-Rivas R, Scherf A. PfAlbas constitute a new eukaryotic DNA/RNA-binding protein family in malaria parasites. Nucleic Acids Res 2011; 40:3066-77. [PMID: 22167473 PMCID: PMC3326326 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkr1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In Plasmodium falciparum, perinuclear subtelomeric chromatin conveys monoallelic expression of virulence genes. However, proteins that directly bind to chromosome ends are poorly described. Here we identify a novel DNA/RNA-binding protein family that bears homology to the archaeal protein Alba (Acetylation lowers binding affinity). We isolated three of the four PfAlba paralogs as part of a molecular complex that is associated with the P. falciparum-specific TARE6 (Telomere-Associated Repetitive Elements 6) subtelomeric region and showed in electromobility shift assays (EMSAs) that the PfAlbas bind to TARE6 repeats. In early blood stages, the PfAlba proteins were enriched at the nuclear periphery and partially co-localized with PfSir2, a TARE6-associated histone deacetylase linked to the process of antigenic variation. The nuclear location changed at the onset of parasite proliferation (trophozoite-schizont), where the PfAlba proteins were also detectable in the cytoplasm in a punctate pattern. Using single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) probes in EMSAs, we found that PfAlbas bind to ssRNA, albeit with different binding preferences. We demonstrate for the first time in eukaryotes that Alba-like proteins bind to both DNA and RNA and that their intracellular location is developmentally regulated. Discovery of the PfAlbas may provide a link between the previously described subtelomeric non-coding RNA and the regulation of antigenic variation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Chêne
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie des Interactions Hôte-Parasite, URA 2581, F-75015 Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Vembar SS, Jonikas MC, Hendershot LM, Weissman JS, Brodsky JL. J domain co-chaperone specificity defines the role of BiP during protein translocation. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:22484-94. [PMID: 20430885 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.102186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hsp70 chaperones can potentially interact with one of several J domain-containing Hsp40 co-chaperones to regulate distinct cellular processes. However, features within Hsp70s that determine Hsp40 specificity are undefined. To investigate this question, we introduced mutations into the ER-lumenal Hsp70, BiP/Kar2p, and found that an R217A substitution in the J domain-interacting surface of BiP compromised the physical and functional interaction with Sec63p, an Hsp40 required for ER translocation. In contrast, interaction with Jem1p, an Hsp40 required for ER-associated degradation, was unaffected. Moreover, yeast expressing R217A BiP exhibited defects in translocation but not in ER-associated degradation. Finally, the genetic interactions of the R217A BiP mutant were found to correlate with those of known translocation mutants. Together, our results indicate that residues within the Hsp70 J domain-interacting surface help confer Hsp40 specificity, in turn influencing distinct chaperone-mediated cellular activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi S Vembar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Vembar SS, Jin Y, Brodsky JL, Hendershot LM. The mammalian Hsp40 ERdj3 requires its Hsp70 interaction and substrate-binding properties to complement various yeast Hsp40-dependent functions. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:32462-71. [PMID: 19748898 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.000729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins of 70 kDa (Hsp70s) and their J domain-containing Hsp40 cofactors are highly conserved chaperone pairs that facilitate a large number of cellular processes. The observation that each Hsp70 partners with many J domain-containing proteins (JDPs) has led to the hypothesis that Hsp70 function is dictated by cognate JDPs. If this is true, one might expect highly divergent Hsp70-JDP pairs to be unable to function in vivo. However, we discovered that, when a yeast cytosolic JDP, Ydj1, was targeted to the mammalian endoplasmic reticulum (ER), it interacted with the ER-lumenal Hsp70, BiP, and bound to BiP substrates. Conversely, when a mammalian ER-lumenal JDP, ERdj3, was directed to the yeast cytosol, it rescued the temperature-sensitive growth phenotype of yeast-containing mutant alleles in two cytosolic JDPs, HLJ1 and YDJ1, and activated the ATP hydrolysis rate of Ssa1, the yeast cytosolic Hsp70 that partners with Hlj1 and Ydj1. Surprisingly, ERdj3 mutants that were compromised for substrate binding were unable to rescue the hlj1ydj1 growth defect even though they stimulated the ATPase activity of Ssa1. Yet, J domain mutants of ERdj3 that were defective for interaction with Ssa1 restored the growth of hlj1ydj1 yeast. Taken together, these data suggest that the substrate binding properties of certain JDPs, not simply the formation of unique Hsp70-JDP pairs, are critical to specify in vivo function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi S Vembar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is monitored by ER quality control (ERQC) mechanisms. Proteins that pass ERQC criteria traffic to their final destinations through the secretory pathway, whereas non-native and unassembled subunits of multimeric proteins are degraded by the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway. During ERAD, molecular chaperones and associated factors recognize and target substrates for retrotranslocation to the cytoplasm, where they are degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome machinery. The discovery of diseases that are associated with ERAD substrates highlights the importance of this pathway. Here, we summarize our current understanding of each step during ERAD, with emphasis on the factors that catalyse distinct activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi S Vembar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Feng D, Zhao X, Soromani C, Toikkanen J, Römisch K, Vembar SS, Brodsky JL, Keränen S, Jäntti J. The transmembrane domain is sufficient for Sbh1p function, its association with the Sec61 complex, and interaction with Rtn1p. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:30618-28. [PMID: 17699516 PMCID: PMC2361393 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m701840200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sec61 protein translocation complex in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane is composed of three subunits. The alpha-subunit, called Sec61p in yeast, is a multispanning membrane protein that forms the protein conducting channel. The functions of the smaller, carboxyl-terminally tail-anchored beta subunit Sbh1p, its close homologue Sbh2p, and the gamma subunit Sss1p are not well understood. Here we show that co-translational protein translocation into the ER is reduced in sbh1Delta sbh2Delta cells, whereas there is a limited reduction of post-translational translocation and no effect on export of a mutant form of alpha-factor precursor for ER-associated degradation in the cytosol. The translocation defect and the temperature-sensitive growth phenotype of sbh1Delta sbh2Delta cells were rescued by expression of the transmembrane domain of Sbh1p alone, and the Sbh1p transmembrane domain was sufficient for coimmunoprecipitation with Sec61p and Sss1p. Furthermore, we show that Sbh1p co-precipitates with the ER transmembrane protein Rtn1p. Sbh1p-Rtn1p complexes do not appear to contain Sss1p and Sec61p. Our results define the transmembrane domain as the minimal functional domain of the Sec61beta homologue Sbh1p in ER translocation, identify a novel interaction partner for Shb1p, and imply that Sbh1p has additional functions that are not directly linked to protein translocation in association with the Sec61 complex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dejiang Feng
- VTT Biotechnology, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
- Institute of Biotechnology, P. O. Box 56, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Xueqiang Zhao
- Institute of Biotechnology, P. O. Box 56, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Christina Soromani
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research and Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2XY, United Kingdom
| | | | - Karin Römisch
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research and Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2XY, United Kingdom
| | - Shruthi S. Vembar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Jeffrey L. Brodsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | | | - Jussi Jäntti
- VTT Biotechnology, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
- Institute of Biotechnology, P. O. Box 56, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: Institute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. Tel.: 358-9-19159722; Fax: 358-9-19159570; E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|