Prognostic value of miR-21 for prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Oncogenic MicroRNAs: Key players in human prostate cancer pathogenesis, a narrative review

Prostate cancer (PC) is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in men worldwide, and identifying key molecular players in its pathogenesis is essential for advancing effective diagnosis and therapy. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have recently emerged as significant molecules involved in the progression of various cancers. As noncoding RNAs, miRNAs play a vital role in regulating gene expression and are implicated in several aspects of cancer pathogenesis. In the context of human PC, growing evidence suggests that certain miRNAs with oncogenic properties are key players in the initiation, progression, and metastasis of the disease. In conclusion, dysregulated miRNAs are critical in prostate cancer progression, influencing key cellular processes. Oncogenic miRNAs exhibit diagnostic and therapeutic potential in PC. Targeting these miRNAs presents novel treatment avenues, but further research is needed to fully understand their clinical utility. Additional investigation into the mechanisms of miRNA regulation and their interactions with other signaling pathways is necessary to comprehensively understand the role of oncogenic miRNAs in PC and to develop effective treatments for this disease. Overall, substantiating the role of oncogenic miRNAs in PC pathogenesis provides valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the disease and may lead to the development of novel targeted therapies for improved patient outcomes.

The Role of Pyroptosis in the Progression and Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Urological Malignancies

The prevalence of urological malignancies continues to pose a significant global health challenge, particularly due to the poor prognosis associated with advanced stages of these diseases. Consequently, there is an urgent need to deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing the development of urological malignancies to facilitate breakthroughs in diagnosis and treatment. Pyroptosis, a novel and specific form of programmed cell death, plays a crucial role in regulating inflammatory responses, cell development, tissue homeostasis, and stress responses. Recent research has revealed a close association between pyroptosis and urological malignancies. In this paper, we review the pathogenesis and recent advancements in the understanding of pyroptosis in urological malignancies, elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in its regulation, and aim to provide new directions for the clinical management of these diseases.

Recent Electrochemical Advancements for Liquid-Biopsy Nucleic Acid Detection for Point-of-Care Prostate Cancer Diagnostics and Prognostics

Current diagnostic and prognostic tests for prostate cancer require specialised laboratories and have low specificity for prostate cancer detection. As such, recent advancements in electrochemical devices for point of care (PoC) prostate cancer detection have seen significant interest. Liquid-biopsy detection of relevant circulating and exosomal nucleic acid markers presents the potential for minimally invasive testing. In combination, electrochemical devices and circulating DNA and RNA detection present an innovative approach for novel prostate cancer diagnostics, potentially directly within the clinic. Recent research in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, voltammetry, chronoamperometry and potentiometric sensing using field-effect transistors will be discussed. Evaluation of the PoC relevance of these techniques and their fulfilment of the WHO's REASSURED criteria for medical diagnostics is described. Further areas for exploration within electrochemical PoC testing and progression to clinical implementation for prostate cancer are assessed.

Rapid enzyme-free detection of miRNA-21 in human ovarian cancerous cells using a fluorescent nanobiosensor designed based on hairpin DNA-templated silver nanoclusters

BACKGROUND

Cancer is known as one of the main non-communicable diseases and the leading cause of death in the new era. Early diagnosis of cancer requires the identification of special biomarkers. Currently, microRNAs (miRNAs) have attracted the attention of researchers as useful biomarkers for cancer early detection. Hence, various methods have been recently developed for detecting and monitoring miRNAs. Among all miRNAs, detection of miRNA-21 (miR-21) is important because it is abnormally overexpressed in most cancers. Here, a new biosensor based on silver nanoclusters (AgNCs) is introduced for detecting miR-21.

RESULTS

As a fluorescent probe, a rationally designed hairpin sequence containing a poly-cytosine motif was used to facilitate the formation of AgNCs. A guanine-rich sequence was also employed to enhance the sensing signal. It was found that in the absence of miR-21, adding a guanine-rich sequence to the detecting probe caused only a slight change in the fluorescence emission intensity of AgNCs. While in the presence of miR-21, the emission signal enhanced. A direct correlation was observed between the increase in the fluorescence of AgNCs and the concentration of miR-21. The performance of the proposed biosensor was characterized thoroughly and confirmed. The biosensor detected miR-21 in an applicable linear range from 9 pM to 1.55 nM (LOD: 2 pM).

SIGNIFICANCE

The designed biosensor was successfully applied for detecting miR-21 in human plasma samples and also in human normal and lung and ovarian cancer cells. This biosensing strategy can be used as a model for detecting other miRNAs. The designed nanobiosensor can measure miR-21 without using any enzymes, with fewer experimental steps, and at a low cost compared to the reported biosensors in this field.

MicroRNA signature of stromal-epithelial interactions in prostate and breast cancers

Stromal-epithelial communication is an absolute necessity when it comes to the morphogenesis and pathogenesis of solid tissues, including the prostate and breast. So far, signalling pathways of several growth factors have been investigated. Besides such chemical factors, non-coding RNAs such as miRNAs have recently gained much interest because of their variety and complexity of action. Prostate and breast tissues being highly responsive to steroid hormones such as androgen and estrogen, respectively, it is not surprising that a huge set of available literature critically investigated the interplay between such hormones and miRNAs, especially in carcinogenesis. This review showcases our effort to highlight hormonally-related miRNAs that also somehow perturb the regular stromal-epithelial interactions during carcinogenesis in the prostate and breast. In future, we look forward to exploring how hormonal changes in the tissue microenvironment bring about miRNA-mediated changes in stromal-epithelial interactome in carcinogenesis and cancer progression.

Natural Compounds for Preventing Age-Related Diseases and Cancers

Aging is a multifaceted process influenced by hereditary factors, lifestyle, and environmental elements. As time progresses, the human body experiences degenerative changes in major functions. The external and internal signs of aging manifest in various ways, including skin dryness, wrinkles, musculoskeletal disorders, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Additionally, cancer, like aging, is a complex disease that arises from the accumulation of various genetic and epigenetic alterations. Circadian clock dysregulation has recently been identified as an important risk factor for aging and cancer development. Natural compounds and herbal medicines have gained significant attention for their potential in preventing age-related diseases and inhibiting cancer progression. These compounds demonstrate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-metastatic, and anti-angiogenic effects as well as circadian clock regulation. This review explores age-related diseases, cancers, and the potential of specific natural compounds in targeting the key features of these conditions.

Rapid isolation method for extracellular vesicles based on Fe3O4@ZrO2

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are pivotal in intercellular communication, disease mechanisms. Despite numerous methods for EVs isolation, challenges persist in yield, purity, reproducibility, cost, time, and automation. We introduce a EVs isolation technique using Fe3O4@ZrO2 beads, leveraging ZrO2-phosphate interaction. The results indicated that EVs were efficiently separated from large volumes of samples in 30 minutes without preconcentration. Our method demonstrated capture efficiency (74%-78%) compared to ultracentrifugation, purity (97%), and reproducibility (0.3%-0.5%), with excellent linearity (R2 > 0.99). EVs from urine samples showed altered expression of miRNAs. The logistic regression model achieved an AUC of 0.961, sensitivity of 0.92, and specificity of 0.94. With potential for automation, this magnetic bead-based method holds promise for clinical applications, offering an efficient and reliable tool for EVs research and clinical studies.

Role of MicroRNA-21 in Prostate Cancer Progression and Metastasis: Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Targets

The role of noncoding RNA has made remarkable progress in understanding progression, metastasis, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). A better understanding of the miRNAs has enhanced our knowledge of their targeting mainly at the therapy level in solid tumors, such as prostate cancer (PCa). microRNAs (miRNAs) belong to a class of endogenous RNA that deficit encoded proteins. Therefore, the role of miRNAs has been well-coined in the progression and development of PCa. miR-21 has a dual nature in its work both as a tumor suppressor and oncogenic role, but most of the recent studies showed that miR-21 is a tumor promoter and also is involved in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Upregulation of miR-21 suppresses programmed cell death and inducing metastasis and castration resistant in PCa. miR-21 is involved in the different stages, such as proliferation, angiogenesis, migration, and invasion, and plays an important role in the progression, metastasis, and advanced stages of PCa. Recently, various studies directly linked the role of high levels of miR-21 with a poor therapeutic response in the patient of PCa. In the present review, we have explained the molecular mechanisms/pathways of miR-21 in PCa progression, metastasis, and castration resistant and summarized the role of miR-21 in diagnosis and therapeutic levels in PCa. In addition, we have spotlighted the recent therapeutic strategies for targeting different stages of PCa.

Berberine: Potential preventive and therapeutic strategies for human colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common digestive tract tumor, with incidences continuing to rise. Although modern medicine has extended the survival time of CRC patients, its adverse effects and the financial burden cannot be ignored. CRC is a multi-step process and can be caused by the disturbance of gut microbiome and chronic inflammation's stimulation. Additionally, the presence of precancerous lesions is also a risk factor for CRC. Consequently, scientists are increasingly interested in identifying multi-target, safe, and economical herbal medicine and natural products. This paper summarizes berberine's (BBR) regulatory mechanisms in the occurrence and development of CRC. The findings indicate that BBR regulates gut microbiome homeostasis and controls mucosal inflammation to prevent CRC. In the CRC stage, BBR inhibits cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis, blocks the cell cycle, induces cell apoptosis, regulates cell metabolism, inhibits angiogenesis, and enhances chemosensitivity. BBR plays a role in the overall management of CRC. Therefore, using BBR as an adjunct to CRC prevention and treatment could become a future trend in oncology.

BRCA Mutations and MicroRNA Expression Patterns in the Peripheral Blood of Breast Cancer Patients

Breast cancer (BC) persists as the predominant malignancy globally, standing as the foremost cause of cancer-related mortality among women. Despite notable advancements in prevention and treatment, encompassing the incorporation of targeted immunotherapies, a continued imperative exists for the development of innovative methodologies. These methodologies would facilitate the identification of women at heightened risk, enhance the optimization of therapeutic approaches, and enable the vigilant monitoring of emergent treatment resistance. Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs), found either freely circulating in the bloodstream or encapsulated within extracellular vesicles, have exhibited substantial promise for diverse clinical applications. These applications range from diagnostic and prognostic assessments to predictive purposes. This study aimed to explore the potential associations between BRCA mutations and specific miRNAs (miR-21, miR-155, miR-126, and miR-200c) expression that are known to be dysregulated in BC patient samples. Our findings indicate a robust correlation between miRNA expression status and disease subtypes. We found a correlation between the expression status of miRNAs and distinct disease subtypes. Intriguingly, however, no significant associations were discerned between disease status, subtypes, or miRNA expression levels and the presence of BRCA mutations. To advance the validation of miRNAs as clinically relevant biomarkers, additional investigations within larger and meticulously selected patient cohorts are deemed imperative. These microRNA entities hold the potential to emerge as groundbreaking and readily accessible tools, poised for seamless integration into the landscape of clinical practice.

The Suppression of the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition in Prostate Cancer through the Targeting of MYO6 Using MiR-145-5p

Aberrant expression of miR-145-5p has been observed in prostate cancer where is has been suggested to play a tumor suppressor role. In other cancers, miR-145-5p acts as an inhibitor of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a key molecular process for tumor progression. However, the interaction between miR-145-5p and EMT remains to be elucidated in prostate cancer. In this paper the link between miR-145-5p and EMT in prostate cancer was investigated using a combination of in silico and in vitro analyses. miR-145-5p expression was significantly lower in prostate cancer cell lines compared to normal prostate cells. Bioinformatic analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas prostate adenocarcinoma (TCGA PRAD) data showed significant downregulation of miR-145-5p in prostate cancer, correlating with disease progression. Functional enrichment analysis significantly associated miR-145-5p and its target genes with EMT. MYO6, an EMT-associated gene, was identified and validated as a novel target of miR-145-5p in prostate cancer cells. In vitro manipulation of miR-145-5p levels significantly altered cell proliferation, clonogenicity, migration and expression of EMT-associated markers. Additional TCGA PRAD analysis suggested miR-145-5p tumor expression may be useful predictor of disease recurrence. In summary, this is the first study to report that miR-145-5p may inhibit EMT by targeting MYO6 in prostate cancer cells. The findings suggest miR-145-5p could be a useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer: Novel genetic and immunologic biomarkers

Prostate cancer (PCa) is considered one of the most prevalent male malignancies worldwide with a global burden estimated to increase over the next two decades. Due to significant mortality and debilitation of survival, early diagnosis has been described as key. Unfortunately, current diagnostic serum-based strategies have low specificity and sensitivity. Histologic examination is invasive and not useful for treatment and monitoring purposes. Hence, a plethora of studies have been conducted to identify and validate an efficient noninvasive approach in the diagnosis, staging, and prognosis of PCa. These investigations may be categorized as genetic (non-coding biomarkers and gene markers), immunologic (immune cells, interleukins, cytokines, antibodies, and auto-antibodies), and heterogenous (PSA-related markers, PHI-related indices, and urinary biomarkers) subgroups. This review examines current approaches and potential strategies using biomarker panels in PCa.

Emerging role of miRNA in prostate cancer: A future era of diagnostic and therapeutics

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer in men (20%) and is responsible for 6.8% (1/5) of all cancer-related deaths in men around the world. The development and spread of prostate cancer are driven by a wide variety of genomic changes and extensive epigenetic events. Because of this, the MicroRNA (miRNA) and associated molecular mechanisms involved in PCa genesis and aggressive were only partially identified until today. The miRNAs are a newly discovered category of regulatorsthat have recently been recognized to have a significant role in regulating numerous elements of cancer mechanisms, such as proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, and apoptosis. The miRNAs are a type of small (22-24 nucleotides), non-coding, endogenous, single-stranded RNA and work as potent gene regulators. Various types of cancer, including PCa, have found evidence that miRNA genes, which are often located in cancer-related genetic regions or fragile locations, have a role in the primary steps of tumorigenesis, either as oncogenes or tumorsuppressors. To explain the link between miRNAs and their function in the initiation and advancement of PCa, we conducted a preliminary assessment. The purpose of this research was to enhance our understanding of the connection between miRNA expression profiles and PCa by elucidating the fundamental processes of miRNA expression and the target genes.

Targeting of AKT1 by miR-143-3p Suppresses Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Prostate Cancer

An altered expression of miR-143-3p has been previously reported in prostate cancer where it is purported to play a tumor suppressor role. Evidence from other cancers suggests miR-143-3p acts as an inhibitor of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a key biological process required for metastasis. However, in prostate cancer the interaction between miR-143-3p and EMT-associated mechanisms remains unclear. Therefore, this paper investigated the link between miR-143-3p and EMT in prostate cancer using in vitro and in silico analyses. PCR detected that miR-143-3p expression was significantly decreased in prostate cancer cell lines compared to normal prostate cells. Bioinformatic analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas Prostate Adenocarcinoma (TCGA PRAD) data showed a significant downregulation of miR-143-3p in prostate cancer, correlating with pathological markers of advanced disease. Functional enrichment analysis confirmed the significant association of miR-143-3p and its target genes with EMT. The EMT-linked gene AKT1 was subsequently shown to be a novel target of miR-143-3p in prostate cancer cells. The in vitro manipulation of miR-143-3p levels significantly altered the cell proliferation, clonogenicity, migration and expression of EMT-associated markers. Further TCGA PRAD analysis suggested miR-143-3p tumor expression may be a useful predictor of disease recurrence. In summary, this is the first study to report that miR-143-3p overexpression in prostate cancer may inhibit EMT by targeting AKT1. The findings suggest miR-143-3p could be a useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer.

Lineage Plasticity and Stemness Phenotypes in Prostate Cancer: Harnessing the Power of Integrated "Omics" Approaches to Explore Measurable Metrics

Prostate cancer (PCa), the most frequent and second most lethal cancer type in men in developed countries, is a highly heterogeneous disease. PCa heterogeneity, therapy resistance, stemness, and lethal progression have been attributed to lineage plasticity, which refers to the ability of neoplastic cells to undergo phenotypic changes under microenvironmental pressures by switching between developmental cell states. What remains to be elucidated is how to identify measurements of lineage plasticity, how to implement them to inform preclinical and clinical research, and, further, how to classify patients and inform therapeutic strategies in the clinic. Recent research has highlighted the crucial role of next-generation sequencing technologies in identifying potential biomarkers associated with lineage plasticity. Here, we review the genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenetic events that have been described in PCa and highlight those with significance for lineage plasticity. We further focus on their relevance in PCa research and their benefits in PCa patient classification. Finally, we explore ways in which bioinformatic analyses can be used to determine lineage plasticity based on large omics analyses and algorithms that can shed light on upstream and downstream events. Most importantly, an integrated multiomics approach may soon allow for the identification of a lineage plasticity signature, which would revolutionize the molecular classification of PCa patients.

MiR-21 Is Induced by Hypoxia and Down-Regulates RHOB in Prostate Cancer

Tumour hypoxia is a well-established contributor to prostate cancer progression and is also known to alter the expression of several microRNAs. The over-expression of microRNA-21 (miR-21) has been consistently linked with many cancers, but its role in the hypoxic prostate tumour environment has not been well studied. In this paper, the link between hypoxia and miR-21 in prostate cancer is investigated. A bioinformatic analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) prostate biopsy datasets shows the up-regulation of miR-21 is significantly associated with prostate cancer and clinical markers of disease progression. This up-regulation of miR-21 expression was shown to be caused by hypoxia in the LNCaP prostate cancer cell line in vitro and in an in vivo prostate tumour xenograft model. A functional enrichment analysis also revealed a significant association of miR-21 and its target genes with processes related to cellular hypoxia. The over-expression of miR-21 increased the migration and colony-forming ability of RWPE-1 normal prostate cells. In vitro and in silico analyses demonstrated that miR-21 down-regulates the tumour suppressor gene Ras Homolog Family Member B (RHOB) in prostate cancer. Further a TCGA analysis illustrated that miR-21 can distinguish between different patient outcomes following therapy. This study presents evidence that hypoxia is a key contributor to the over-expression of miR-21 in prostate tumours, which can subsequently promote prostate cancer progression by suppressing RHOB expression. We propose that miR-21 has good potential as a clinically useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of hypoxia and prostate cancer.

MiR-182 Is Upregulated in Prostate Cancer and Contributes to Tumor Progression by Targeting MITF

Altered expression of microRNA-182-5p (miR-182) has been consistently linked with many cancers, but its specific role in prostate cancer remains unclear. In particular, its contribution to epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in this setting has not been well studied. Therefore, this paper profiles the expression of miR-182 in prostate cancer and investigates how it may contribute to progression of this disease. In vitro experiments on prostate cancer cell lines and in silico analyses of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) prostate adenocarcinoma (PRAD) datasets were performed. PCR revealed miR-182 expression was significantly increased in prostate cancer cell lines compared to normal prostate cells. Bioinformatic analysis of TCGA PRAD data similarly showed upregulation of miR-182 was significantly associated with prostate cancer and clinical markers of disease progression. Functional enrichment analysis confirmed a significant association of miR-182 and its target genes with EMT. The EMT-linked gene MITF (melanocyte inducing transcription factor) was subsequently shown to be a novel target of miR-182 in prostate cancer cells. Further TCGA analysis suggested miR-182 expression can be an indicator of patient outcomes and disease progression following therapy. In summary, this is the first study to report that miR-182 over-expression in prostate cancer may contribute to EMT by targeting MITF expression. We propose miR-182 as a potentially useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer and other malignancies.

Prognostic significance of pretreatment systemic immune-inflammation index in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The SII (systemic immune-inflammation index) has been extensively reported to have a prognostic value in prostate cancer (PCa), despite the unconformable results. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to quantify the effect of pretreatment SII on survival outcomes in patients with PCa.

METHODS

The following databases were searched: Web of Science, Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). For exploration of the SII's correlations with the overall survival (OS) and the progression-free survival/biochemical recurrence-free survival (PFS/bRFS) in PCa, the pooled hazard ratios (HRs) were assessed within 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

The present meta-analysis covered 10 studies with 8133 patients. Among the PCa population, a high SII was linked significantly to poor OS (HR = 2.63, 95% CI = 1.87-3.70, p < 0.001), and worse PFS/bRFS (HR = 2.49, 95% CI = 1.30-4.77, p = 0.006). However, a high SII was not linked significantly to T stage (OR = 1.69, 95% CI = 0.86-3.33, p = 0.128), the metastasis to lymph node (OR = 1.69, 95% CI = 0.69-4.16, p = 0.251), age (OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 0.88-2.23, p = 0.150), or the Gleason score (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 0.88-1.96, p = 0.178).

CONCLUSIONS

For the PCa sufferers, the SII might be a promising prognostic biomarker, which is applicable to the high-risk subgroup identification, and provide personalized therapeutic strategies.

Pre-clinical and clinical importance of miR-21 in human cancers: Tumorigenesis, therapy response, delivery approaches and targeting agents

The field of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) has made significant progress in understanding the pathogenesis of diseases and has broadened our knowledge towards their targeting, especially in cancer therapy. ncRNAs are a large family of RNAs with microRNAs (miRNAs) being one kind of endogenous RNA which lack encoded proteins. By now, miRNAs have been well-coined in pathogenesis and development of cancer. The current review focuses on the role of miR-21 in cancers and its association with tumor progression. miR-21 has both oncogenic and onco-suppressor functions and most of the experiments are in agreement with the tumor-promoting function of this miRNA. miR-21 primarily decreases PTEN expression to induce PI3K/Akt signaling in cancer progression. Overexpression of miR-21 inhibits apoptosis and is vital for inducing pro-survival autophagy. miR-21 is vital for metabolic reprogramming and can induce glycolysis to enhance tumor progression. miR-21 stimulates EMT mechanisms and increases expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 thereby elevating tumor metastasis. miR-21 is a target of anti-cancer agents such as curcumin and curcumol and its down-regulation impairs tumor progression. Upregulation of miR-21 results in cancer resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Increasing evidence has revealed the role of miR-21 as a biomarker as it is present in both the serum and exosomes making them beneficial biomarkers for non-invasive diagnosis of cancer.

Circulating microRNAs as Reliable Tumor Biomarkers: Opportunities and Challenges Facing Clinical Application

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in the development of human malignancies, and cells have the ability to secrete these molecules into extracellular compartments. Thus, cell-free miRNAs (circulating miRNAs) can potentially be used as biomarkers to evaluate pathophysiological changes. Although circulating miRNAs have been proposed as potential noninvasive tumor biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, and response to therapy, their routine application in the clinic is far from being achieved. This review focuses on the recent progress regarding the value of circulating miRNAs as noninvasive biomarkers, with specific consideration of their relevant clinical applications. In addition, we provide an in-depth analysis of the technical challenges that impact the assessment of circulating miRNAs. We also highlight the significance of integrating circulating miRNAs with the standard laboratory biomarkers to boost sensitivity and specificity. The current status of circulating miRNAs in clinical trials as tumor biomarkers is also covered. These insights and general guidelines will assist researchers in experimental practice to ensure quality standards and repeatability, thus improving future studies on circulating miRNAs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Our review will boost the knowledge behind the inconsistencies and contradictory results observed among studies investigating circulating miRNAs. It will also provide a solid platform for better-planned strategies and standardized techniques to optimize the assessment of circulating cell-free miRNAs.

Advances in Bioactivity of MicroRNAs of Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles and Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of small noncoding RNA involved in physiological and pathological processes via the regulation of gene expression. Naked miRNAs are unstable and liable to degradation by RNases. Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) secreted by plants and extracellular vesicles (EVs) found in milk are abundant in miRNAs, which can be carried by ELNs and EVs to target cells to exert their bioactivities. In this review, we describe the current understanding of miRNAs in plant ELNs and milk EVs, summarize their important roles in regulation of inflammation, intestinal barrier, tumors, and infantile immunological functions, and also discuss the adverse effect of EV miRNAs on human health. Additionally, we prospect recent challenges centered around ELN and EV miRNAs for interventional applications and provide insights of grain-derived ELNs and miRNAs interventional use in human health. Overall, plant ELNs and milk EVs can transfer miRNAs to mitigate the pathological status of recipient cells by mediating the expression of target genes but may also exert some side effects. More studies are required to elucidate the in-depth understanding of potential interventional effects of ELN and EV miRNAs on human health.