1
|
Tian R, Liu X, Xiao Y, Jing L, Tao H, Yang L, Meng X. Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction drug-containing serum inhibits IL-1β secretion from D-glucose and PA induced BV2 cells via autophagy/NLRP3 signaling. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 323:117686. [PMID: 38160864 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.117686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction (HLJDD), a famous traditional Chinese medicine prescription with heat-clearing and detoxifying effects, has been widely used to treat diabetes, dementia, stroke, and other diseases. However, the detailed mechanisms of HLJDD against type 2 diabetes associated cognitive dysfunction (DACD) through inhibiting interleukin-1β (IL-1β) mediated neuroinflammation remain to be further elucidated. AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study was to investigate the effect and potential mechanism of HLJDD on IL-1β secretion in a DACD model of BV2 cells induced by D-glucose and palmitic acid (PA). MATERIALS AND METHOD sUltra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/electrostatic field orbital well high-resolution mass spectrometry technology was used to analyze the compounds in HLJDD drug-containing serum. The cytotoxicity was detected by cell counting kit-8. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure the secretion of IL-1β in BV2 cells. Reactive oxygen species, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and malondialdehyde kits were used to detect the intracellular oxidative stress levels. The autophagy level was determined by autophagy staining kit and transmission electron microscope. The expression levels of autophagy-related 7 (Atg7), P62, LC3, nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family, pyrin domain-containing-3(NLRP3), Caspase1, and IL-1β were detected by real-time PCR, immunofluorescence, and western blotting. The Atg7siRNA was transfected into BV2 cells to produce autophagy inhibitory effect. Then the effect of HLJDD drug-containing serum on IL-1β secretion in D-glucose and PA induced BV2 cells and the potential mechanism of autophagy-NLRP3 inflammasome activation were further observed. RESULTS Eighty-eight compounds were preliminarily identified in HLJDD drug-containing serum, among which geniposide, baicalin, palmatine, berberine, wogonoside, wogonin, and geniposidic acid were identified as the main prototype components of HLJDD into the blood. In this study, the DACD model of BV2 cells induced by high concentrations of glucose and PA was successfully constructed. HLJDD drug-containing serum significantly reduced the secretion of IL-1β and the activity of NLRP3 inflammasome with improving the oxidative stress level. Interestingly, the enhanced autophagy level was also found. After transfection of Atg7siRNA into BV2 cells, the effect of HLJDD drug-containing serum on autophagy promotion was reversed, but the inhibitory effects on IL-1β secretion, NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and oxidative stress were reduced. CONCLUSIONS These results indicated that the inhibition of HLJDD drug-containing serum on the IL-1β secretion in D-glucose and PA induced BV2 cells was related to autophagy promotion, the decreased NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and the improved oxidative stress. Moreover, the improvement of HLJDD drug-containing serum on IL-1β secretion, NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and oxidative stress were all closely associated with Atg7 mediated autophagy promotion. Geniposide, baicalin, palmatine, berberine, wogonoside, wogonin, and geniposidic acid may be the potential active ingredients of HLJDD drug-containing serum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruimin Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China; Department of Pharmacology, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, 637000, China
| | - Xianfeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Yang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Lijia Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Honglin Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Lu Yang
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
| | - Xianli Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China; Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang W, Zhang J. Teneligliptin alleviates diabetes-related cognitive impairment by inhibiting the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and NLRP3 inflammasome in mice. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 16:8336-8347. [PMID: 38127000 PMCID: PMC11131981 DOI: 10.18632/aging.205333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) significantly influences the normal health of patients with its severe complications, including diabetes-related cognitive impairment (CI). Recently, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress (OS) have been reported to participate in the pathogenesis of diabetes-related CI. Teneligliptin, an inhibitor of DDP-IV, was developed for treating DM and is claimed with promising effects against inflammation. Herein, in the current study, we examined the potential therapeutic function of Teneligliptin against diabetes-related CI. Db/m or diabetic mice were orally administered with teneligliptin (60 mg/kg/day) for 10 weeks. Elevated levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), increased escape latency, declined time in the platform quadrant and decreased number of platform crossings in the Morris water maze test, reduced freezing index in the fear conditioning test, and lessened time spent in the novel arm and percentage of alterations in the Y-maze test were observed in diabetic mice, all of which were sharply improved by teneligliptin. Furthermore, increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and activated OS state were observed in the hippocampus of diabetic mice, which were markedly repressed by Teneligliptin. Lastly, the activation of the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) signaling and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway in the hippocampus of diabetic mice were notably inhibited by teneligliptin. Collectively, teneligliptin mitigated diabetes-related CI by repressing the ER stress and NLRP3 inflammasome in diabetic mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Laizhou City People’s Hospital, Yantai, Shandong 261400, China
| | - Juanjuan Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Laizhou City People’s Hospital, Yantai, Shandong 261400, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhao Z, Wang X, Lu M, Gao Y. Rosuvastatin Improves Endothelial Dysfunction in Diabetes by Normalizing Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress via Calpain-1 Inhibition. Curr Pharm Des 2023; 29:2579-2590. [PMID: 37881071 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128250494231016065438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rosuvastatin contributes to the improvement of vascular complications in diabetes, but the protective mechanisms remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect and mechanism of rosuvastatin on endothelial dysfunction induced by diabetes. METHODS Calpain-1 knockout (Capn1 EK684-/-) and C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with STZ to induce type 1 diabetes. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were incubated with high glucose in this study. The function of isolated vascular rings, apoptosis, and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) indicators were measured in this experiment. RESULTS The results showed that rosuvastatin (5 mg/kg/d) and calpain-1 knockout improved impaired vasodilation in an endothelial-dependent manner, and this effect was abolished by an ERS inducer. Rosuvastatin administration inhibited calpain-1 activation and ERS induced by high glucose, as well as apoptosis and oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro. In addition, an ERS inducer (tunicamycin) offset the beneficial effect of rosuvastatin on endothelial dysfunction and ERS, which was accompanied by increased calpain-1 expression. The ERS inhibitor showed a similar improvement in endothelial dysfunction with rosuvastatin but could not increase the improvement in endothelial function of rosuvastatin. CONCLUSION These results suggested that rosuvastatin improves endothelial dysfunction by suppressing calpain- 1 and normalizing ERS, subsequently decreasing apoptosis and oxidative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Zhao
- Cardiovascular Department, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Xinpeng Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Meili Lu
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Drugs, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Yuxia Gao
- Cardiovascular Department, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Elsaeed EM, Hamad AGA, Erfan OS, El-Shahat MA, Ebrahim FAE. Exenatide promotes the autophagic function in the diabetic hippocampus: a review. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES 2022; 9:229-238. [DOI: 10.1080/2314808x.2022.2067388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Omnia S. Erfan
- Human Anatomy and Embryology, Mansoura University, Al Mansurah, Egypt
| | - Mona A. El-Shahat
- Human Anatomy and Embryology, Mansoura University, Al Mansurah, Egypt
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Niu Y, Chang P, Liu T, Shen X, Zhao H, Zhang M, Lei S, Chen B, Yu J. Obese mice induced by high-fat diet have differential expression of circular RNAs involved in endoplasmic reticulum stress and neuronal synaptic plasticity of hippocampus leading to obesity-associated cognitive impairment. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1000482. [PMID: 36263377 PMCID: PMC9574125 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1000482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) is an important cause of impaired memory and cognitive function, but the underlying mechanisms are not clear. In the present study, we analyzed the levels of circRNAs in the hippocampus of C57BL/6J mice and evaluated the memory and cognition ability of C57BL/6J mice with HFD using Morris water maze and Y-maze approaches to explore the potential mechanisms linking circRNAs in obesity-associated cognitive impairment. Learning performance showed that HFD-induced obesity mice have impaired memory and cognition. The Arraystar analysis of the hippocampus displayed that HFD-induced obesity leads to the differential expression of circRNAs (DE-circRNAs) in mice. In total, 46 circular RNAs with elevated expression and 10 with decreased expression were identified. Among them, mmu_circRNA_004797 was identified to be significantly downregulated and the expression of mmu_circRNA_21040 was significantly upregulated in the HFD-fed mice, compared with control mice by PCR test. Bioinformatics analysis also showed that the upregulated circRNAs were related to the neuronal function and behavior, and material transport process, while downregulated circRNAs participated in the process of cell response to external stimuli, such as cellular response to nutrient levels. Furthermore, the KEGG pathway analysis showed that the upregulated circRNAs are mainly involved in Axon guidance, calcium signaling pathway, and ErbB signaling pathway. Only a single significant pathway, that is, “protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum”, was observed in the downregulated circRNAs. Finally, we examined the deficits of hippocampal synaptic plasticity and detected the expression of ER stress-related protein. The results showed that ER stress was activated in the hippocampus, and hippocampal synaptic plasticity deficits were displayed. Our results demonstrated that circRNAs were most likely implicated in the predisposition to obesity-associated cognitive impairment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Niu
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Pan Chang
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Tian Liu
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Xi Shen
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Mingxia Zhang
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Shengping Lei
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Baoying Chen
- Imaging Diagnosis and Treatment Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
- Baoying Chen
| | - Jun Yu
- Clinical Experimental Center, Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Xi'an, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Yu
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Youssef NS, Elzatony AS, Abdel Baky NA. Diacerein attenuate LPS-induced acute lung injury via inhibiting ER stress and apoptosis: Impact on the crosstalk between SphK1/S1P, TLR4/NFκB/STAT3, and NLRP3/IL-1β signaling pathways. Life Sci 2022; 308:120915. [PMID: 36055546 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.120915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening clinical problem with high mortality rate and limited treatments or preventive options that represents a major challenge for clinicians. Diacerein (DIA) is a multi-target anthraquinone derivative with potent anti-inflammatory action. The aim of this study is to assess the protective effect of DIA and its potential molecular targets against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administrated DIA (50 mg/kg) for 5 consecutive days followed by a single intraperitoneal injection of LPS (5mg/kg). KEY FINDINGS DIA mitigated oxidative lung injury in LPS-challenged rats via significantly decreasing lung wet/dry (W/D) ratio, inflammatory cells infiltration, and lipid peroxidation, with concomitant elevation in enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant levels in lung tissue. Likewise, DIA alleviated endoplasmic reticulum stress and markedly halted inflammation triggered by LPS challenge in pulmonary tissue by suppressing NLRP3/IL-1β and TLR4/NF-κB signaling with parallel decrease in proinflammatory cytokine levels. Interestingly, DIA down regulated Sphk1/S1P axis, reduced GSK-3β and STAT3 proteins expression, and markedly decreased caspase-3 besides increasing Bcl-2 levels in lung tissue of LPS-challenged animals. These biochemical findings was simultaneously associated with marked improvement in histological alterations of lung tissue. SIGNIFICANCE These findings verify the protective effect of DIA against LPS-induced ALI through targeting oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and apoptosis. Importantly, DIA halted the hyperinflammatory state triggered by LPS via multi-faceted inhibitory effect on different signaling pathways, hence DIA could potentially reduce mortality in patients with ALI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nagwa Salah Youssef
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy (Girls), Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Asmaa Sameer Elzatony
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy (Girls), Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nayira A Abdel Baky
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy (Girls), Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhao F, Li B, Yang W, Ge T, Cui R. Brain-immune interaction mechanisms: Implications for cognitive dysfunction in psychiatric disorders. Cell Prolif 2022; 55:e13295. [PMID: 35860850 PMCID: PMC9528770 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Cognitive dysfunction has been identified as a major symptom of a series of psychiatric disorders. Multidisciplinary studies have shown that cognitive dysfunction is monitored by a two‐way interaction between the neural and immune systems. However, the specific mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction in immune response and brain immune remain unclear. Materials and methods In this review, we summarized the relevant research to uncover our comprehension of the brain–immune interaction mechanisms underlying cognitive decline. Results The pathophysiological mechanisms of brain‐immune interactions in psychiatric‐based cognitive dysfunction involve several specific immune molecules and their associated signaling pathways, impairments in neural and synaptic plasticity, and the potential neuro‐immunological mechanism of stress. Conclusions Therefore, this review may provide a better theoretical basis for integrative therapeutic considerations for psychiatric disorders associated with cognitive dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fangyi Zhao
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Bingjin Li
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Tongtong Ge
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ranji Cui
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhou Y, Murugan DD, Khan H, Huang Y, Cheang WS. Roles and Therapeutic Implications of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10081167. [PMID: 34439415 PMCID: PMC8388996 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10081167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In different pathological states that cause endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium depletion, altered glycosylation, nutrient deprivation, oxidative stress, DNA damage or energy perturbation/fluctuations, the protein folding process is disrupted and the ER becomes stressed. Studies in the past decade have demonstrated that ER stress is closely associated with pathogenesis of obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Excess nutrients and inflammatory cytokines associated with metabolic diseases can trigger or worsen ER stress. ER stress plays a critical role in the induction of endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. Signaling pathways including AMP-activated protein kinase and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor have been identified to regulate ER stress, whilst ER stress contributes to the imbalanced production between nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing oxidative stress. Several drugs or herbs have been proved to protect against cardiovascular diseases (CVD) through inhibition of ER stress and oxidative stress. The present article reviews the involvement of ER stress and oxidative stress in cardiovascular dysfunction and the potential therapeutic implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau 999078, China;
| | - Dharmani Devi Murugan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan 23200, Pakistan;
| | - Yu Huang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China;
| | - Wai San Cheang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau 999078, China;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +853-8822-4914
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lemmer IL, Willemsen N, Hilal N, Bartelt A. A guide to understanding endoplasmic reticulum stress in metabolic disorders. Mol Metab 2021; 47:101169. [PMID: 33484951 PMCID: PMC7887651 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global rise of metabolic disorders, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, demands a thorough molecular understanding of the cellular mechanisms that govern health or disease. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a key organelle for cellular function and metabolic adaptation and, therefore disturbed ER function, known as "ER stress," is a key feature of metabolic disorders. SCOPE OF REVIEW As ER stress remains a poorly defined phenomenon, this review provides a general guide to understanding the nature, etiology, and consequences of ER stress in metabolic disorders. We define ER stress by its type of stressor, which is driven by proteotoxicity, lipotoxicity, and/or glucotoxicity. We discuss the implications of ER stress in metabolic disorders by reviewing evidence implicating ER phenotypes and organelle communication, protein quality control, calcium homeostasis, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and inflammation as key mechanisms in the development of ER stress and metabolic dysfunction. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS In mammalian biology, ER is a phenotypically and functionally diverse platform for nutrient sensing, which is critical for cell type-specific metabolic control by hepatocytes, adipocytes, muscle cells, and neurons. In these cells, ER stress is a distinct, transient state of functional imbalance, which is usually resolved by the activation of adaptive programs such as the unfolded protein response (UPR), ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD), or autophagy. However, challenges to proteostasis also impact lipid and glucose metabolism and vice versa. In the ER, sensing and adaptive measures are integrated and failure of the ER to adapt leads to aberrant metabolism, organelle dysfunction, insulin resistance, and inflammation. In conclusion, the ER is intricately linked to a wide spectrum of cellular functions and is a critical component in maintaining and restoring metabolic health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imke L Lemmer
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Pettenkoferstr. 9, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Diabetes and Cancer (IDC), Helmholtz Center Munich, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Nienke Willemsen
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Pettenkoferstr. 9, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Nazia Hilal
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Pettenkoferstr. 9, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Bartelt
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Pettenkoferstr. 9, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Diabetes and Cancer (IDC), Helmholtz Center Munich, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Technische Universität München, Biedersteiner Str. 29, 80802 München, Germany; Department of Molecular Metabolism, 665 Huntington Avenue, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 02115 Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|