The Effects of Shared e-Book Reading With Dynamic Text and Speech Output on the Single-Word Reading Skills of Young Children With Developmental Disabilities

Purpose This study investigated the use of a new software feature, namely, dynamic text with speech output, on the acquisition of single-word reading skills by six children with developmental disabilities during shared e-book reading experiences with six typically developing peers. Method A single-subject, multiple-probe design across participants was used to evaluate the effects of the software intervention. Six children with developmental delays were the primary focus for intervention, while six children with typical development participated as peer partners in intervention activities. e-Books were created with the new software feature, in which a child selects a picture from the e-book and the written word is presented dynamically and then spoken out. These e-books were then used in shared reading activities with dyads including a child with a disability and a peer with typical development. Participants engaged in the shared reading activity for an average of 13 sessions over a 6-week time period, an average of 65 min of intervention for each dyad. Results Participants with disabilities acquired an average of 73% of the words to which they were exposed, a gain of 4.3 words above the baseline average of 1.7 correct responses. The average effect size (Tau-U) was .94, evidence of a very large effect. Conclusion The results provide evidence that the use of e-books with the dynamic text and speech output feature during inclusive shared reading activities can be an effective and socially valid method to develop the single-word reading skills of young children with developmental disabilities.

The Promise of Comprehensive Early Reading Instruction for Children With Autism and Recommendations for Future Directions

Purpose

Children with autism have an increased likelihood of reading difficulties. The reasons for this are numerous and varied, but many children with autism can learn to read when they are provided with evidence-based early reading instruction.

Method

Here, we provide an overview of some of the factors that impact early reading development for children with autism and a rationale for the provision of comprehensive early reading instruction consistent with the recommendations of the National Reading Panel (NRP). We discuss research on NRP instruction for children with autism, including some of our own empirical studies. We also discuss some areas of research that were not emphasized by the NRP but that we view as important. We offer recommendations that extend beyond NRP guidelines in order to advance knowledge and improve practice.

Conclusions

Comprehensive early reading instruction holds great promise for children with autism, but there are gaps in our understanding that need to be addressed. These include the most effective method(s) for tailoring reading instruction to the needs of the individual while optimizing delivery to small groups of children, supporting skills and making other accommodations not outlined by the NRP, and consideration of bilingualism and of reading instruction in languages other than English, among other issues. While our focus in this review article is early reading instruction for children with autism who use oral language, we acknowledge that there is a major gap in the literature concerning reading instruction for those who do not use oral language. We hope that this review article will be helpful to clinicians, educators, and researchers alike, as well as children with autism and their families, friends, and support networks.

Stability of Literacy Profiles of Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Associations With Stakeholder Perceptions of Appropriate High School Support Needs

Purpose For many individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), postsecondary outcomes are poor. This may be due to insufficient academic supports, particularly with regard to literacy skills, during high school. More information is needed about skill profiles so that we can better differentiate support for students with varying social, communication, cognitive, and academic proficiency levels. This study was designed to (a) identify unique literacy profiles of high school students with ASD, (b) assess profile stability over time, (c) identify predictors of profile membership, and (d) analyze stakeholder reports of required school support intensity. Method Participants were a diverse sample of high school students with ASD, 14-21 years old (N = 544), their parents, and their teachers who participated in a randomized controlled trial of a comprehensive treatment model for high school students with ASD. Standardized measures were administered to assess nonverbal IQ, autism symptomatology, language/adaptive communication, reading comprehension, academic knowledge, and parent/teacher report of school support needs intensity. Latent transition analysis was conducted to examine sample heterogeneity and to explore the stability of the profiles. Associations between profiles and reports of support intensity were examined. Results Four literacy profiles were identified that were stable over 2 years: Emergent Literacy/Comprehensive Support, Low Literacy/Intensive Support, Average Literacy/Moderate Support, and Average Literacy/Limited Support. Parent and teacher reports of school support intensity generally aligned with the profiles. Conclusions These analyses provide insight into the diverse literacy and support needs in ASD. Implications for practice and the role of speech-language pathologists in assessment and intervention are discussed. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13495119.

Introduction to the Forum: Literacy in Autism-Across the Spectrum

Purpose The purpose of this article is to introduce the LSHSS Forum: Literacy in Autism-Across the Spectrum. The articles in this forum provide an overview of the current evidence related to literacy in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) from preschool to adolescence and highlight the high literacy needs of this population. Method This introduction provides an overview of some of the reasons why children with ASD are at risk of persistent literacy difficulties and a summary of the six articles included in this forum. Conclusion More research is clearly needed to better understand which factors contribute to the high literacy needs in this population. For now, based on the best available evidence, the authors in this forum provide clear clinical implications that should be highly useful for speech-language pathologists and other professionals involved in literacy assessment and intervention for children and adolescents on the autism spectrum.

Characterization and prediction of early reading abilities in children on the autism spectrum

Many children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have reading profiles characterized by higher decoding skills and lower reading comprehension. This study assessed whether this profile was apparent in young children with ASD and examined concurrent and longitudinal predictors of early reading. A discrepant profile of reading (higher alphabet and lower meaning) was found in 62% of this sample. Concurrent analyses revealed that reading proficiency was associated with higher nonverbal cognition and expressive language, and that social ability was negatively related to alphabet knowledge. Nonverbal cognition and expressive language at mean age 2½ years predicted later reading performance at mean age 5½ years. These results support the importance of early language skills as a foundation for reading in children with ASD.

Integration of literacy into speech-language therapy: a descriptive analysis of treatment practices

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was: (a) to examine the extent to which speech-language therapy provided to children with language disorders in the schools targets code-based literacy skills (e.g., alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness) during business-as-usual treatment sessions, and (b) to determine whether literacy-focused therapy time was associated with factors specific to children and/or speech-language pathologists (SLPs).

METHOD

Participants were 151 kindergarten and first-grade children and 40 SLPs. Video-recorded therapy sessions were coded to determine the amount of time that addressed literacy. Assessments of children's literacy skills were administered as well as questionnaires regarding characteristics of SLPs (e.g., service delivery, professional development).

RESULTS

Results showed that time spent addressing code-related literacy across therapy sessions was variable. Significant predictors included SLP years of experience, therapy location, and therapy session duration, such that children receiving services from SLPs with more years of experience, and/or who utilized the classroom for therapy, received more literacy-focused time. Additionally, children in longer therapy sessions received more therapy time on literacy skills.

CONCLUSIONS

There is considerable variability in the extent to which children received literacy-focused time in therapy; however, SLP-level factors predict time spent in literacy more than child-level factors. Further research is needed to understand the nature of literacy-focused therapy in the public schools.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Readers will be able to: (a) define code-based literacy skills, (b) discuss the role that speech-language pathologists have in fostering children's literacy development, and (c) identify key factors that may currently influence the inclusion of literacy targets in school-based speech-language therapy.

The relationship between parent report of adaptive behavior and direct assessment of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder

PURPOSE

This study was designed to shed light on the profile of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A key aim was to examine the relationship between parent report of adaptive behavior and direct assessment of reading ability in these children.

METHOD

The authors investigated children's reading ability using the Wide Range Achievement Test—Fourth Edition (Wilkinson & Robertson, 2006) and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability—Third Edition (Neale, 2007). Parent report data was collected using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales—Second Edition (Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla, 2005). Participants were 21 children with ASD (6-11 years) and their primary caregivers.

RESULTS

Direct assessment of children's reading ability showed that some children with ASD have difficulty learning to read and exhibit particular weaknesses in comprehension. The results revealed positive relationships between Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales scores in the Adaptive Communication domain and direct assessment of children's reading ability across 3 measures of reading (word-level accuracy, passage-level accuracy, and passage-level comprehension).

CONCLUSIONS

Although literacy levels vary among children with ASD, some clearly struggle with reading. There is a significant relationship between parent self-report of adaptive behavior and direct assessment of children's reading ability.

Overlap in Speech-Language and Reading Services for Kindergartners and First Graders

Purpose

Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and reading professionals provide educational services to children who are at risk for reading difficulties, although these professions do not necessarily coordinate efforts. To date, there is limited evidence regarding the proportion of children who receive services from both professionals. The current study reports the prevalence and overlap of speech-language and reading services provided to kindergartners and first graders in Virginia.

Method

This study analyzed a population-level database of reading screening scores from 74,730 kindergartners and 75,088 first graders. Information regarding the speech-language services received by these children was obtained. Prevalence rates of speech-language impairment, reading risk, and comorbidity were calculated. The distribution of children receiving speech-language services across categories of reading competence was examined.

Results

Findings indicated that ∼6% of the children received speech-language services and 11.1% of the kindergartners and 13.7% of the first graders received reading services. One-quarter of the children receiving speech-language services also received reading services. Furthermore, children receiving speech-language services received reading services at twice the rate of children who were not receiving speech-language services in both kindergarten (23.1% vs. 9.1%) and first grade (25.2% vs. 11.3%).

Clinical Implications

This study provides empirical support for improving coordination between SLPs and reading professionals.