Development and validation of the Spanish-English Language Proficiency Scale (SELPS)

The Use of Language Sample Analysis to Differentiate Developmental Language Disorder From Typical Language in Bilingual Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

Language sample analysis (LSA) is a commonly recommended method of assessment for bilingual children. This systematic review and meta-analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on the use of LSA to differentiate between developmental language disorder (DLD) and typical language (TL) in bilingual children.

METHOD

We conducted a search of several large electronic databases along with forward and backward searches and applied abstract and full-text screening procedures to identify all relevant studies. We then estimated standardized mean differences, representing the ability of LSA to differentiate between DLD and TL, using multilevel model and subgroup and moderator analyses to identify characteristics of LSA that may be associated with differences in effect size magnitude. We conducted assessments of publication bias and risk of bias by examining quality indicators for each study.

RESULTS

The search yielded 35 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Participants ranged in age from 2;0 (years;months) to 11;9, with over 40 languages represented. Across studies, the pooled standardized mean difference indicated that children with DLD performed 0.78 SD lower on LSA measures than those with TL. Measures of morphosyntactic accuracy exhibited the largest pooled effect size. Elicitation method, language of task, and age were not associated with differences in effect size.

DISCUSSION

Results of this study provide evidence of the clinical utility of LSA in differentiating between DLD and TL in bilingual children. Further research is needed to examine classification accuracy as well as task characteristics that may improve its diagnostic utility.

Code-Switching and Language Proficiency in Bilingual Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

Purpose This study examined the frequency of code-switching by Spanish-English-speaking children as a function of language proficiency in each language and diagnosis (developmental language disorder [DLD] or typical language development [TLD]). Method Sixty-two Spanish-English-speaking children, 5-7 years of age, participated in this study (24 with DLD and 38 with TLD). Language samples were used to determine the level of language proficiency in each language as a continuum of performance. Correlational analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationship between Spanish and English language proficiency and the frequency of code-switching considering the total number of code-switched words, intrasentential code-switching (i.e., number of sentences/C-units with code-switched parts), and intersentential code-switching (i.e., code-switched sentences/C-units). Negative binomial and zero-inflated Poisson regressions were conducted to evaluate whether the frequency of code-switched words, code-switched parts, and code-switched sentences is different across children with DLD and their peers with TLD, controlling for Spanish and English proficiency. Results When Spanish was the target language, lower proficiency in Spanish was associated with higher frequency of code-switches to English for the group with DLD, but not for their peers with TLD who code-switched to English regardless of their Spanish and English proficiency. There were no statistically significant effects of diagnosis on the frequency of code-switches. Conclusion Results indicate that code-switching occurs similarly across children with DLD and their peers with TLD; therefore, the frequency and type of code-switches should not be used as an indicator of DLD.

Vulnerability of Clitics and Articles to Bilingual Effects in Typically Developing Spanish-English Bilingual Children

This study examines bilingual effects in Spanish-English bilingual children with good maintenance of the minority language. The present study compares the performance of a group of Spanish-monolingual children (MON; n=30) with two groups of Spanish-speaking bilingual children (Low English proficiency group: LEP; n=36; High English proficiency group, HEP; n=36) on the elicited productions of Spanish articles and object clitics. Our results suggest that children with LEP performed significantly lower than MON children of the same age on both articles and clitics in Spanish. However, children with HEP, who were a year older on average, performed similarly to the MON group. Both groups of bilingual children produced errors of clitic omission and substitution, but these errors were minimal in the MON group. The results suggest that Spanish clitics and articles are vulnerable to bilingual effects for English/Spanish speaking children with good Spanish maintenance.

The Role of Prekindergarten Spanish in Predicting First-Grade English Word Reading Among Dual-Language Learners

Purpose The purpose of the current study was to examine the role that the 1st language, Spanish, at prekindergarten (pre-K) plays in predicting 2nd language (L2), English, word reading in 1st grade. In addition, it examines the role of conceptual vocabulary in predicting word reading in English. Method As part of a longitudinal study of predictors and models of reading comprehension from pre-K to 3rd grade, 248 children attending preschool programs completed Spanish and English measures in the spring of each academic year. In this article, we report the results of English and Spanish measures of oral language and literacy skills that were administered in pre-K and 4 measures of English word reading that were administered in 1st grade. Results Results from structural equation modeling indicated that Spanish oral language made significant direct and indirect contributions to English oral language and word reading. Further, results supported previous evidence indicating that L2 letter knowledge and L2 oral language proficiency are the strongest predictors of L2 word reading in 1st grade. Discussion Similar to findings with monolingual English-speaking children, results support findings that, in the early stages of reading development, oral language in both 1st language and L2 make a significant and independent contribution to word reading. This study has important implications for the support of oral language skills in Latino preschool children.

Moved by Reading in a Spanish-Speaking, Dual Language Learner Population

Purpose

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an English-only version and a Spanish-support version of an embodied reading comprehension intervention (Moved by Reading) consisting of 3 stages (physical manipulation, imagined manipulation, and transfer) for Spanish-English dual language learners.

Method

Sixty-one dual language learners in Arizona were randomly assigned to 4 groups (Spanish-support control, Spanish-support intervention, English-only control, and English-only intervention). Analyses of variance were used to compare control and intervention groups and to compare groups according to the language of the intervention.

Results

Children in the Spanish-support intervention group significantly outperformed both control groups during the physical manipulation stage, whereas children in the English-only intervention group outperformed both control groups in the imagined manipulation stage, but there was little transfer to a new, unrelated text.

Conclusions

The Moved by Reading intervention, in both its English-only and Spanish-support versions, improved performance on comprehension questions, but in different stages of the intervention. The Spanish-support version of the intervention was most effective in the physical manipulation stage, whereas the English-only version was more effective in the imagined manipulation stage. Neither version was effective in producing significant transfer effects.

Identifying risk for language impairment in children from linguistically diverse low-income schools

PURPOSE

To improve screening procedures for children in a linguistically diverse context, we combined tasks known to reveal grammatical deficits in children with language impairment (LI) with training to facilitate performance on a verb elicitation task.

METHOD

Sixty-four first grade children participated. The objective grammatical measures included elicitation of 12 past tense regular verbs preceded by a teaching phase (teach-test), the sentence recall (SR) subtest of the Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals (CELF-4), and a tally of all conjugated verbs from a narrative retell task. Given the widespread reliance on teacher observation for the referral of children suspected of having LI, we compared our results to the spoken language portion of the CELF-4 teacher observational rating scale (ORS).

RESULT

Using teacher observation as a reference for comparison, the past tense elicitation task and the SR task yielded strong discriminating power, but the verb tally was relatively weak. However, combining the three tasks yielded the highest levels of sensitivity (75%) and specificity (92%) than any single measure on its own.

CONCLUSION

This study contributes to alternative assessment practices by highlighting the potential utility of adding a teaching component prior to administering informal grammatical probes.

Performance of Low-Income Dual Language Learners Attending English-Only Schools on the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition, Spanish

Purpose

The aim of this study was to examine the performance of a group of Spanish-speaking, dual language learners (DLLs) who were attending English-only schools and came from low-income and low-parental education backgrounds on the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition, Spanish (CELF-4S; Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2006).

Method

Spanish-speaking DLLs (N = 656), ages 5;0 (years;months) to 7;11, were tested for language impairment (LI) using the core language score of the CELF-4S and the English Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test (Dawson, Stout, & Eyer, 2003). A subsample (n = 299) was additionally tested using a Spanish language sample analysis and a newly developed Spanish morphosyntactic measure, for identification of children with LI and to conduct a receiver operating characteristics curve analysis.

Results

Over 50% of the sample scored more than 1 SD below the mean on the core language score. In our subsample, the sensitivity of the CELF-4S was 94%, and specificity was 65%, using a cutoff score of 85 as suggested in the manual. Using an empirically derived cutoff score of 78, the sensitivity was 86%, and the specificity was 80%.

Conclusions

Results suggest that the CELF-4S overidentifies low-income Spanish-English DLLs attending English-only schools as presenting with LI. For this sample, 1 in every 3 Latino children from low socioeconomic status was incorrectly identified with LI. Clinicians should be cautious when using the CELF-4S to evaluate low-income Spanish-English DLLs and ensure that they have converging evidence before making diagnostic decisions.

Grammaticality differences between Spanish-speaking children with specific language impairment and their typically developing peers

BACKGROUND

A limited number of studies have analyzed grammaticality in monolingual Spanish-speaking children with specific language impairment (SLI). Most of the available data are based on bilingual speakers.

AIMS

To extend previous studies by doing a more detailed analysis of grammatical types in monolingual Spanish-speakers with and without SLI.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Forty-nine Spanish-speaking children (18 with SLI, 17 age-matched typically developing controls, 14 language-matched controls) were recruited from schools in Mexico and observed in a spontaneous narrative task.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

The findings were inconsistent with those of previous studies. Significant differences were found for article, connector and preposition omissions, and the per cent of ungrammatical utterances. There were no significant differences found for clitics and verb phrases, though clitic substitutions were frequent. Language-matched controls did not produce different frequencies of ungrammatical utterances.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Significant differences were found for three main items: the per cent of ungrammatical utterances, the omission of articles and the omission of prepositions. Therefore, we propose these components be taken into consideration when distinguishing typically developing children from children with SLI.

The Complexity of the Spanish Subjunctive in Bilingual Children with SLI

This study investigated the use of the Spanish subjunctive in bilingual children with and without specific language impairments (SLI). Using an elicited production task, we examined: (1) the potential of the subjunctive as a grammatical marker of SLI in Spanish-English bilingual children, (2) the extent to which degree of bilingualism affects performance, and (3) the specific patterns of errors across groups. The participants in this study were 16 children with SLI and 16 typically developing children (TD) matched on age, English language proficiency, and mother's education level. Bilingual children were selected based on their English proficiency and were classified either as Spanish-dominant children with intermediate English proficiency (asymmetrical bilinguals, AsyBi), or near-balanced bilinguals (BalBi). A completion task elicited the subjunctive in complement, purpose and temporal clauses. Results suggest that (1) level of bilingual proficiency, language clinical status, and age predicted of the accurate production of the subjunctive, (2) temporal clauses might have a better potential to discriminate between TD children and children with SLI in bilingual settings, and (3) tense underspecification errors were common in children with SLI. This study provides general support for grammatically targeted approaches to assessment in bilingual populations, and for theoretical approaches that link SLI to tense deficits.

Interactions between Bilingual Effects and Language Impairment: Exploring Grammatical Markers in Spanish-Speaking Bilingual Children

This study examines the interaction between language impairment and different levels of bilingual proficiency. Specifically, we explore the potential of articles and direct object pronouns as clinical markers of primary language impairment (PLI) in bilingual Spanish-speaking children. The study compared children with PLI and typically developing children (TD) matched on age, English language proficiency, and mother's education level. Two types of bilinguals were targeted: Spanish-dominant children with intermediate English proficiency (asymmetrical bilinguals, AsyB), and near-balanced bilinguals (BIL). We measured children's accuracy in the use of direct object pronouns and articles with an elicited language task. Results from this preliminary study suggest language proficiency affects the patterns of use of direct object pronouns and articles. Across language proficiency groups, we find marked differences between TD and PLI, in the use of both direct object pronouns and articles. However, the magnitude of the difference diminishes in balanced bilinguals. Articles appear more stable in these bilinguals and therefore, seem to have a greater potential to discriminate between TD bilinguals from those with PLI. Future studies using discriminant analyses are needed to assess the clinical impact of these findings.

Assessing Measurement Invariance for Spanish Sentence Repetition and Morphology Elicitation Tasks

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate evidence supporting the construct validity of two grammatical tasks (sentence repetition, morphology elicitation) included in the Spanish Screener for Language Impairment in Children (Restrepo, Gorin, & Gray, 2013). We evaluated if the tasks measured the targeted grammatical skills in the same way across predominantly Spanish-speaking children with typical language development and those with primary language impairment.

METHOD

A multiple-group, confirmatory factor analytic approach was applied to examine factorial invariance in a sample of 307 predominantly Spanish-speaking children (177 with typical language development; 130 with primary language impairment). The 2 newly developed grammatical tasks were modeled as measures in a unidimensional confirmatory factor analytic model along with 3 well-established grammatical measures from the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition, Spanish (Wiig, Semel, & Secord, 2006).

RESULTS

Results suggest that both new tasks measured the construct of grammatical skills for both language-ability groups in an equivalent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence of bias related to children's language status for the Spanish Screener for Language Impairment in Children Sentence Repetition or Morphology Elicitation tasks. Results provide support for the validity of the new tasks as measures of grammatical skills.