Lexical diversity and omission errors as predictors of language ability in the narratives of sequential Spanish-English bilinguals: a cross-language comparison

Narratives of Chinese kindergarteners with Autism spectrum disorder: Comparison with typically developing children

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an early-onset neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by highly heterogeneous language abilities. These variations necessitate sensitive and comprehensive assessments, with narrative analysis being an effective method. This study aimed to examine the micro- and macrostructural aspects of narratives of Mandarin-speaking children with ASD. 19 children with ASD (mean age = 5.57 years; standard deviation [SD] = 1.09) and 19 age-matched typically developing (TD) children (mean age = 5.14 years; SD = 0.09) were enrolled in this study. The Narrative Assessment Protocol (NAP-2) was used to obtain the children's narrative samples. Children's wordless picture book-based narrations were analysed for story length (total number of words and utterances), linguistic abilities (mean length of utterances, mean length of the five longest utterances, number of different words, and vocabulary diversity), and NAP-2 scores (total scores, story grammar, storytelling convention, simple sentence structure, complex sentence structure, word and phrase). After applying Bonferroni's adjustment (α = 0.0042), no significant differences were observed in linguistic performance or story length between the two groups. However, children with ASD showed significantly lower total scores (t = 3.25, p = 0.002), story grammar scores (t = 3.17, p = 0.003), and storytelling convention scores (t = 3.04, p = 0.004). These findings suggest that young Chinese children with ASD may exhibit comparable microstructural narrative abilities but face significant challenges in macrostructural narrative skills, such as organising episodic structures. This underscores the need for targeted interventions to enhance the macro-narrative skills in this population.

The Use of Language Sample Analysis to Differentiate Developmental Language Disorder From Typical Language in Bilingual Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

Language sample analysis (LSA) is a commonly recommended method of assessment for bilingual children. This systematic review and meta-analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on the use of LSA to differentiate between developmental language disorder (DLD) and typical language (TL) in bilingual children.

METHOD

We conducted a search of several large electronic databases along with forward and backward searches and applied abstract and full-text screening procedures to identify all relevant studies. We then estimated standardized mean differences, representing the ability of LSA to differentiate between DLD and TL, using multilevel model and subgroup and moderator analyses to identify characteristics of LSA that may be associated with differences in effect size magnitude. We conducted assessments of publication bias and risk of bias by examining quality indicators for each study.

RESULTS

The search yielded 35 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Participants ranged in age from 2;0 (years;months) to 11;9, with over 40 languages represented. Across studies, the pooled standardized mean difference indicated that children with DLD performed 0.78 SD lower on LSA measures than those with TL. Measures of morphosyntactic accuracy exhibited the largest pooled effect size. Elicitation method, language of task, and age were not associated with differences in effect size.

DISCUSSION

Results of this study provide evidence of the clinical utility of LSA in differentiating between DLD and TL in bilingual children. Further research is needed to examine classification accuracy as well as task characteristics that may improve its diagnostic utility.

La Rana or El Rana: Dual Language Learners' Grammatical Variability in Narrative Retells

PURPOSE

This longitudinal study investigated the trajectory of Spanish article accuracy in Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) from preschool to first grade, addressing the need for longitudinal data on the variability of Spanish grammatical skills in DLLs in English immersion classrooms.

METHOD

Language sample analysis was conducted on 336 Spanish and English narrative retells elicited from 31 Spanish-English DLLs (range: 45-85 months). Growth curve models captured within- and between-individual change in article accuracy from the beginning of preschool to the end of first grade.

RESULTS

As a group, DLLs did not exhibit significant positive or negative growth in Spanish article accuracy over time. On average, article accuracy remained stable at 76% from preschool throughout first grade. Participants exhibited significant variability in article accuracy that was partly explained by changes in Spanish proficiency. Spanish article accuracy was lower for DLLs with lower Spanish proficiency indexed by measures from the Spanish language samples, while English proficiency indexed by the English language samples did not affect Spanish article accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that expectations for Spanish grammatical performance in DLLs need to be adjusted to account for the possible impact of not receiving Spanish support in English immersion school settings. DLLs in these instructional programs do not exhibit article accuracy at a level expected for monolingual Spanish speakers. Significant individual differences in both individual status and growth rates of Spanish article accuracy highlight the broad variability in Spanish language skills of DLLs in the United States.

Assessing Language Skills in Bilingual Children: Current Trends in Research and Practice

A continuously challenging issue in the field of speech–language pathology is accurately identifying and diagnosing a language disorder in school-aged (pre-kindergarten through 5th grade) bilingual children, as bilingual children are disproportionately under- and overidentified with a language disorder. The current review focuses on the assessment of bilingual children in pre-kindergarten through fifth grade, aimed to inform teachers, pediatricians, parents, and other relevant professionals of issues surrounding assessment of these dual-language learners. We examine the barriers to assessing bilingual children for language disorders, such as the lack of availability of bilingual tests, underinformative current best practice guidelines, lack of speech–language pathologist (SLP) training/knowledge of bilingualism, and use of interpreters. We discuss the necessary considerations when SLPs use norm-referenced tests with bilingual children, such as norming samples, accurate identification of a language disorder, reliability and validity, test administration, and potential solutions to using otherwise poorly suited norm-referenced tests. We also consider research on several alternative measures to norm-referenced assessments, including dynamic assessment, nonword repetition, language sampling, nonlinguistic cognition, and parent report. We conclude by synthesizing the information in this review to offer six principles of best practices for bilingual assessment.

Bayesian Generalized Linear Mixed-Model Analysis of Language Samples: Detecting Patterns in Expository and Narrative Discourse of Adolescents With Traumatic Brain Injury

Purpose Generalized linear mixed-model (GLMM) and Bayesian methods together provide a framework capable of handling a wide variety of complex data commonly encountered across the communication sciences. Using language sample analysis, we demonstrate the utility of these methods in answering specific questions regarding the differences between discourse patterns of children who have experienced a traumatic brain injury (TBI), as compared to those with typical development. Method Language samples were collected from 55 adolescents ages 13-18 years, five of whom had experienced a TBI. We describe parameters relating to the productivity, syntactic complexity, and lexical diversity of language samples. A Bayesian GLMM is developed for each parameter of interest, relating these parameters to age, sex, prior history (TBI or typical development), and socioeconomic status, as well as the type of discourse sample (compare-contrast, cause-effect, or narrative). Statistical models are thoroughly described. Results Comparing the discourse of adolescents with TBI to those with typical development, substantial differences are detected in productivity and lexical diversity, while differences in syntactic complexity are more moderate. Female adolescents exhibited greater syntactic complexity, while male adolescents exhibited greater productivity and lexical diversity. Generally, our models suggest more advanced discourse among adolescents who are older or who have indicators of higher socioeconomic status. Differences relating to lecture type were also detected. Conclusions Bayesian and GLMM methods yield more informative and intuitive results than traditional statistical analyses, with a greater degree of confidence in model assumptions. We recommend that these methods be used more widely in language sample analysis. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14226959.

Phonological-Orthographic Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia in Three Spanish-English Bilingual Students

Introduction The purpose of this study is to present three case studies of developmental dyslexia in dual-language learners (DLLs) and our assessment process. We identify how phonological and orthographic deficits influence reading outcomes. We review the literature on theoretical models of bilingualism and reading models of developmental dyslexia to guide the assessment process through a multicomponential approach. We point out differences in the manifestation of dyslexia in more and less transparent writing systems. We suggest that reading instruction in Spanish can afford benefits to English-Spanish DLLs with developmental dyslexia. Method The study included three participants, two in fifth grade (10.3-11.7 years) and one in college (18.7 years). The assessment battery included reading nonwords and sight words (Test of Word Reading Efficiency); reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension (Gray Oral Reading Tests-Fourth Edition); phonological awareness subtests (Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing); and rapid automatized naming tests. A language and reading history interview was elicited from the mothers. In addition, we analyzed the participants' phonemic and word errors in reading. Results Our three participants showed core phonological deficits, with decreased performance in decoding nonwords and low accuracy in reading aloud. In spite of their reading and writing deficits, reading comprehension was within average levels for the three participants in this study. Conclusions We show the importance of assessing reading processes in students with a history of reading and writing problems. Our findings are based on three single case studies and are not generalizable. Our aim is to stimulate questions and research on dyslexia and the particular needs of DLLs.

Relationship Between Children's Lexical Diversity in Written Narratives and Performance on a Standardized Reading Vocabulary Measure

The purpose of this study was to examine construct validity of methods of calculating lexical diversity in written narrative samples relative to children's performance on a reading vocabulary measure. For 234 children in 1st-5th grade, written narratives were examined and compared between grades for number of different words (NDW), total words (TNW), NDW in a truncated 50 word sample, and type token ratio (TTR). The relationship between lexical diversity in written narratives and a standardized reading vocabulary measure (GMRT-4) was analyzed by comparing correlations. Grade differences were observed in measures of lexical diversity and productivity. Lexical diversity showed a significant moderate correlation with the GMRT-4. NDW had a stronger relationship to GMRT-4 scores than TTR for participants in first and second grade. Considering length (TNW, NDW constrained to 50 words, or TTR) did not result in a stronger relationship with reading vocabulary. Following additional study establishing probe equivalence, NDW in written narratives may be an efficient, educationally relevant, marker of language maturity and a good predictor of performance on a standardized reading vocabulary measure.

The applicability of D, MTLD, and MATTR in Mandarin-speaking children

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the applicability of D, the Measure of Textual Lexical Diversity (MTLD), and Moving ¬Average Type ¬Token Ratio (MATTR) for measuring lexical diversity of Mandarin-speaking preschoolers. This study examined if D, MTLD, and MATTR can be used to differentiate two different age groups (children age 3 and 4 years) and two language ability groups (typically developing children and children with language delay).

METHOD

Seventy-eight Mandarin-speaking typically developing children and 56 Mandarin-speaking children with language delay participated in this study. The researchers collected, transcribed, and analyzed language samples from these children.

RESULTS

The findings showed that D and MTLD were sensitive LD measures for assessing the Mandarin-speaking preschoolers. D and MTLD differentiated the two different age groups and language ability groups. The D and MTLD scores of typically developing children were significantly higher than those of children with language delay. Also, 4-year-olds had significantly higher D and MTLD scores than 3-year-olds. MATTR differentiated the two language ability groups but not the two age groups. Possible factors influencing the sensitivity of lexical diversity measures were discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated that D and MTLD were sensitive for assessing Mandarin-speaking preschoolers from Taiwan. MATTR can be used to identify children with language delay in this study.

Changes in English Past Tense Use by Bilingual School-Age Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine changes in English past tense accuracy and errors among Spanish-English bilingual children with typical development (TD) and developmental language disorder (DLD).

METHOD

Thirty-three children were tested before and after 1 year to examine changes in clinically relevant English past tense errors using an elicited production task. A mixed-model linear regression using age as a continuous variable revealed a robust effect for age. A 4-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was conducted with age (young, old) and language ability group (TD, DLD) as between-subjects variables, time (Time 1, Time 2) and verb type (regular, irregular, and novel verbs) as within-subject variables, and percent accuracy as the dependent variable. Subsequently, a 4-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was conducted to measure the overall distribution of verb errors across 2 time points.

RESULTS

Overall, children produced regular and novel verb past tense forms with higher accuracy than irregular past tense verbs in an elicitation task. Children with TD were more accurate than children with DLD. Younger children made more improvement than older children from Time 1 to Time 2, especially in the regular and novel verb conditions. Bare stem and overregularization were the most common errors across all groups. Errors consisting of stem + ing were more common in children with DLD than those with TD in the novel verb condition.

DISCUSSION

Contrary to an earlier report (Jacobson & Schwartz, 2005), the relative greater difficulty with regular and novel verbs was replaced by greater difficulty for irregular past tense, a pattern consistent with monolingual impairment. Age was a contributing factor, particularly for younger children with DLD who produced more stem + ing errors in the novel verb condition. For all children, and particularly for those with DLD, an extended period for irregular past tense learning was evident. The results support a usage-based theory of language acquisition and impairment.

Grammaticality differences between Spanish-speaking children with specific language impairment and their typically developing peers

BACKGROUND

A limited number of studies have analyzed grammaticality in monolingual Spanish-speaking children with specific language impairment (SLI). Most of the available data are based on bilingual speakers.

AIMS

To extend previous studies by doing a more detailed analysis of grammatical types in monolingual Spanish-speakers with and without SLI.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Forty-nine Spanish-speaking children (18 with SLI, 17 age-matched typically developing controls, 14 language-matched controls) were recruited from schools in Mexico and observed in a spontaneous narrative task.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

The findings were inconsistent with those of previous studies. Significant differences were found for article, connector and preposition omissions, and the per cent of ungrammatical utterances. There were no significant differences found for clitics and verb phrases, though clitic substitutions were frequent. Language-matched controls did not produce different frequencies of ungrammatical utterances.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Significant differences were found for three main items: the per cent of ungrammatical utterances, the omission of articles and the omission of prepositions. Therefore, we propose these components be taken into consideration when distinguishing typically developing children from children with SLI.

Validating the Use of D for Measuring Lexical Diversity in Low-Income Kindergarten Children

Purpose

Children from low–socioeconomic status families often perform poorly on standardized vocabulary assessments. The primary purpose of the study was to determine whether lexical diversity as measured by D (Malvern, Richards, Chipere, & Durán, 2004) serves as a valid measure of vocabulary in at-risk, low-income, predominantly African American kindergartners.

Method

Kane's (1992) argument-based approach was used to validate D. Six assumptions were examined. Kindergartners ( N = 210) from a high-poverty, low-achievement region of the United States were recorded narrating a wordless picture book and assessed using the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition (Williams, 2007), and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition–Listening Comprehension subtest (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004).

Results

D was distributed normally and did not vary as a function of language sample length or child ethnicity. D was significantly but weakly related to the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition, indicating some distinction between D and the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition, scores. Further, D was only marginally related to the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition–Listening Comprehension subtest.

Conclusions

Although evidence was somewhat mixed, the study supported the view that D is a potentially valid measure of lexical diversity among low-income, predominantly African American kindergartners and could be a useful supplement to standardized vocabulary measures.

Using Technology to Facilitate Authentic Assessment of Bilingual Preschool Children

An increasing number of children in preschools and schools around the country are from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and speak multiple languages. However, clinicians are often challenged in conducting least-biased assessments of bilingual children, which often results in over-referral or under- referral of these children to special education and related services. Utilizing naturalistic and authentic assessment of child language such as language sampling is a recommended approach to augment traditional assessments in clinical settings. The Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) technology offers clinicians a time-and cost effective means to gathering representative language samples across home and school environments to help determine the presence of speech-language impairment in young bilingual children. We describe an exploratory study using the LENA with five Spanish-English bilingual children to identify the accuracy of traditionally transcribed child word counts as compared to the automated child vocalization analyses obtained through the LENA. Results indicate the need for more research to fully explore the clinical utility of this technology for assessment of bilingual children.